Francis Fukuyama: the end of history

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Nation-Building: Beyond Afghanistan and Iraq by Francis Fukuyama

Berlin Wall, business climate, colonial rule, conceptual framework, en.wikipedia.org, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Future Shock, Gunnar Myrdal, informal economy, land reform, managed futures, microcredit, open economy, operational security, rolling blackouts, Seymour Hersh, unemployed young men

She holds a B.A. in social studies from Harvard University and an M.Litt. in international relations from Balliol College, Oxford University. Francis Fukuyama is Bernard L. Schwartz Professor of International Political Economy at the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) of the Johns Hopkins University. As of July 1, 2005, he is also the director of the International Development program at SAIS. Dr. Fukuyama has written widely on issues relating to questions concerning democratization and international political economy. His book, The End of History and the Last Man (Free Press, 1992) has appeared in over twenty foreign editions. He is also the author of Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity (Free Press, 1995), The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order (Free Press, 1999), and Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution (Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2002).

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Nation-Building Forum on Constructive Capitalism Francis Fukuyama, Series Editor Nation-Building Beyond Afghanistan and Iraq • • Edited by Francis Fukuyama The Johns Hopkins University Press • B A LT I M O R E • © 2006 The Johns Hopkins University Press All rights reserved. Published 2006 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 The Johns Hopkins University Press 2715 North Charles Street Baltimore, Maryland 21218-4363 www.press.jhu.edu Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Nation-building : beyond Afghanistan and Iraq / edited by Francis Fukuyama. p. cm. “Product of a conference held at the Paul H.

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See also the chapters by Michèle A. Flournoy and James Dobbins. 13. Bob Woodward, Plan of Attack (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004). 14. Francis Fukuyama, “Nation-Building 101,” Atlantic Monthly, January/February 2004, 159–62. 15. James Fallows, “Blind into Baghdad,” Atlantic Monthly, January/February 2004, 52–77; Kenneth M. Pollack, “After Saddam: Assessing the Reconstruction of Iraq,” Saban Center Analysis Paper no. 1 (Washington, D.C.: Saban Center, 2004). 16. Woodward, Plan of Attack. • 15 • • Francis Fukuyama 17. Robert M. Perito, The American Experience with Police in Peace Operations (Clementsport, Canada: Canadian Peacekeeping Press, 2002). 18.

Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution by Francis Fukuyama

Albert Einstein, Asilomar, assortative mating, Berlin Wall, bioinformatics, caloric restriction, caloric restriction, classic study, Columbine, cotton gin, demographic transition, digital divide, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Flynn Effect, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, impulse control, life extension, Menlo Park, meta-analysis, out of africa, Peter Singer: altruism, phenotype, precautionary principle, presumed consent, Ray Kurzweil, Recombinant DNA, Scientific racism, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), sexual politics, stem cell, Steven Pinker, Stuart Kauffman, The Bell Curve by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, Turing test, twin studies

Weightman, June 24, 1826, in The Life and Selected Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Jefferson (New York: Modern Library, 1944), pp. 729–730. 7 Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 8 Ithiel de Sola Pool, Technologies of Freedom (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard/Belknap, 1983). 9 On this point, see Leon Kass, “Introduction: The Problem of Technology,” in Technology in the Western Political Tradition, ed. Arthur M. Melzer et al. (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993), pp. 10–14. 10 See Francis Fukuyama, “Second Thoughts: The Last Man in a Bottle,” The National Interest, no. 56 (Summer 1999): 16–33.

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See David Sloan Wilson and Elliott Sober, Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1998). 35 For an overview, see Francis Fukuyama, “The Old Age of Mankind,” in The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). CHAPTER 8: HUMAN NATURE 1 Paul Ehrlich, Human Natures: Genes, Cultures, and the Human Prospect (Washington, D.C./Covelo, Calif.: Island Press/Shearwater Books, 2000), p. 330. See Francis Fukuyama, review of Ehrlich in Commentary, February 2001. 2 David L. Hull, “On Human Nature,” in David L. Hull and Michael Ruse, eds., The Philosophy of Biology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 387. 3 Alexander Rosenberg, for example, argues that there are no “essential” characteristics of species because all species exhibit variance, and the median point of a range of variance does not constitute an essence.

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CHAPTER 9: HUMAN DIGNITY 1 Clive Staples Lewis, The Abolition of Man (New York: Touchstone, 1944), p. 85. 2 Counsel of Europe, Draft Additional Protocol to the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, On the Prohibiting of Cloning Human Beings, Doc. 7884, July 16, 1997. 3 This is the theme of the second part of Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 4 For an interpretation of this passage in Tocqueville, see Francis Fukuyama, “The March of Equality,” Journal of Democracy 11 (2000): 11–17. 5 John Paul II, “Message to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences,” October 22, 1996. 6 Daniel C. Dennett, Darwin’s Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), pp. 35–39; see also Ernst Mayr, One Long Argument: Charles Darwin and the Genesis of Modern Evolutionary Thought (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991), pp. 40–42. 7 Michael Ruse and David L.

Zero-Sum Future: American Power in an Age of Anxiety by Gideon Rachman

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Alan Greenspan, Asian financial crisis, bank run, battle of ideas, Berlin Wall, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Bonfire of the Vanities, borderless world, Bretton Woods, BRICs, capital controls, carbon tax, centre right, clean water, collapse of Lehman Brothers, colonial rule, currency manipulation / currency intervention, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, Doha Development Round, energy security, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial deregulation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Glass-Steagall Act, global reserve currency, Global Witness, Golden arches theory, Great Leap Forward, greed is good, Greenspan put, Hernando de Soto, illegal immigration, income inequality, invisible hand, It's morning again in America, Jeff Bezos, laissez-faire capitalism, Live Aid, low interest rates, market fundamentalism, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, Mexican peso crisis / tequila crisis, Mikhail Gorbachev, moral hazard, mutually assured destruction, Naomi Klein, Nelson Mandela, offshore financial centre, Oklahoma City bombing, open borders, open economy, Peace of Westphalia, peak oil, pension reform, plutocrats, popular capitalism, price stability, RAND corporation, reserve currency, rising living standards, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, Savings and loan crisis, shareholder value, Sinatra Doctrine, sovereign wealth fund, special economic zone, Steve Jobs, Stewart Brand, Tax Reform Act of 1986, The Chicago School, The Great Moderation, The Myth of the Rational Market, Thomas Malthus, Timothy McVeigh, trickle-down economics, Washington Consensus, Winter of Discontent, zero-sum game

Quoted in Derek Chollet and James Goldgeier, America Between the Wars: From 11/9 to 9/11 (New York: PublicAffairs, 2008), 195. 10. DEMOCRACY: FRANCIS FUKUYAMA AND THE END OF HISTORY 1. Bloom’s book was published in 1987. Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987). 2. Interview with the author, Washington, D.C. May 27, 2009. 3. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History,” National Interest, June 1989. The article was subsequently turned into a book, The End of History and the Last Man (London: Penguin, 1992). 4. Ibid. 5. See for example Vince Cable, The Storm: The World Economic Crisis and What It Means (London: Atlantic Books, 2009), 3, and Robert Kagan, The Return of History and the End of Dreams (London: Atlantic Books, 2008). 6.

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In Washington, D.C., Francis Fukuyama came up with a surprising answer. Reflecting on his end-of-history thesis in 2009, twenty years after the publication of the original article, Fukuyama mused that one respect in which he might have gone wrong was that “I kind of assumed that American power would be used wisely.” In the aftermath of the Bush administration, that no longer seemed a safe assumption. And the man who twenty years earlier had been seen as the very epitome of American triumphalism argued that “the End of History was never about Reaganism, you know … the true exemplar of the End of History is the European Union, not the United States, because the European Union is trying to transcend sovereignty and power politics; it’s trying to replace that with the global rule of law, and that’s what ought to happen at the end of history.”25 In Brussels, capital of the EU, there were plenty of people who did indeed see the global economic crisis as a unique opportunity to push a distinctively European view of the world. 20 GLOBAL GOVERNMENT THE WORLD AS EUROPE The idea that the European Union might represent the culmination of world history is depressing.

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Strobe Talbott’s The Great Experiment: The Story of Ancient Empires, Modern States, and the Quest for a Global Nation (Simon & Schuster, 2008) goes all the way back to ancient Greece, but also offers some lively insights into the Clinton era and some interesting reflections on the problem of global governance. Anyone wanting to understand the “end of history” debate has to go back to Francis Fukuyama’s original work, The End of History and the Last Man (Penguin, 1992). Fukuyama’s later disavowal of neoconservatism, America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy (Yale, 2006) is also well worth reading. The best thing to read on Alan Greenspan is Greenspan’s own surprisingly compulsive memoir, The Age of Turbulence: Adventures in a New World (Penguin, 2007).

After Europe by Ivan Krastev

affirmative action, bank run, Berlin Wall, Brexit referendum, central bank independence, classic study, clean water, conceptual framework, creative destruction, deindustrialization, Donald Trump, eurozone crisis, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, illegal immigration, job automation, mass immigration, meritocracy, moral panic, open borders, post-work, postnationalism / post nation state, public intellectual, Silicon Valley, Slavoj Žižek, The Brussels Effect, too big to fail, Wolfgang Streeck, World Values Survey, Y Combinator

Chapter 1 1. José Saramago, Death with Interruptions (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2005). 2. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?,” in The National Interest, Summer 1989. 3. Ken Jowitt, “After Leninism: The New World Disorder,” Journal of Democracy 2 (Winter 1991): 11–20. Jowitt later elaborated his ideas in The New World Disorder: The Leninist Extinction (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); see esp. chapters 7–9. 4. Ibid., 310. 5. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?,” in The National Interest, Summer 1989. 6. Harry Kreisler interview with Ken Jowitt, “Doing Political Theory,” Conversations with History, Institute of International Studies, UC Berkeley (Regents of the University of California, 2000). http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people/Jowitt/jowitt-con5.html. 7.

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Shared memories of the Second World War, for example, have faded from view: half of all fifteen- and sixteen-year-olds in German high schools don’t even know that Hitler was a dictator, while a third believe that he protected human rights. As Timur Vermes’s 2011 satirical novel Look Who’s Back suggests, the question is no longer whether it’s possible for Hitler to come back; it’s whether we’d even be able to recognize him. The novel sold more than a million copies in Germany. “The end of history” that Francis Fukuyama promised us in 1989 may well have arrived, but in the perverse sense that historical experience no longer matters and few are really interested in it.6 The geopolitical rationale for European unity vanished with the Soviet Union’s collapse. And Putin’s Russia, threatening as it may be, cannot fill this existential void.

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The opening represented a dramatic instance of surprise, a moment when structures both literal and figurative crumbled unexpectedly. A series of accidents, some of them mistakes so minor that they might otherwise have been trivialities.”11 The end of communism is thus less effectively explained by Francis Fukuyama’s narrative of “the end of history” than it is by Harold Macmillan’s “events, my dear boy, events.” It is the experience of the Soviet collapse that in myriad aspects defines the way eastern Europeans perceive what is taking place today. Witnessing the political turmoil in Europe, we have a sinking feeling that we have been through this before—the only difference being that then it was their world that collapsed.

America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy by Francis Fukuyama

affirmative action, Ayatollah Khomeini, Berlin Wall, Bretton Woods, cuban missile crisis, David Brooks, European colonialism, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, information security, Internet Archive, John Perry Barlow, Mikhail Gorbachev, Monroe Doctrine, mutually assured destruction, New Journalism, no-fly zone, oil-for-food scandal, race to the bottom, RAND corporation, rent-seeking, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, Ronald Reagan: Tear down this wall, transaction costs, uranium enrichment, War on Poverty, Washington Consensus

See realistic Wilsonian-ism Wohlstetter, Albert, 21, 31-36 Wohlstetter, Roberta, 87 Wolfowitz, Paul, 12, 14, 21, 31 Wolfson, Adam, 2 8 women's empowerment, 120 World Bank, 145, 147 World Intellectual Property Organization, 44 World Trade Organization (WTO), 44 Yushchenko, Viktor, 5 2 Zakaria, Fareed, 140 Zarqawi, Abu Musab al-, 181 226 approach to American foreign policy through 4vhich such mistakes might be turned around — one in which the positive aspects of the neo-conservative legacy are joined with a more rfealistic view of the way American power can Ipe used around the world. Francis Fukuyama is Bernard L. Schwartz Professor of .International Political Economy and director of the International Development Program at the School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University. He has written widely on political and economic development, and his previous books include the End of History and the Last Man, a best seller and the winner of the Los Angeles Times Book Prize. fURE SERIES

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See also Dani Rodrik and Arvind Subramanian, "The Primacy of Institutions (And What This Does and Does Not Mean)," Finance and Development 40, no. 2 (2003): 31-34. William R. Easterly and Ross Levine, Tropics, Germs, and Crops: How Endowments Influence Economic Development, NBER Working Paper 9106, 2002. 13. Francis Fukuyama and Sanjay Marwah, "Comparing East Asia and Latin America: Dimensions of Development, " Journal of Democracy 11, no. 4 (2000): 80-94; Fukuyama, State-Building: Governance and World Order in the Twenty-First Century (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004). 14. Francis Fukuyama, "'Stateness' First," Journal of Democracy 16, no. 1 (2005): 84-88. 15. For a historical overview, see Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003). 16.

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This book made available by the Internet Archive. Parts of this book were given as the Castle Lectures in Yale's Program in Ethics, Politics, and Economics, delivered by Francis Fukuyama in 2005. The Castle Lectures were endowed by Mr. John K. Castle. They honor his ancestor the Reverend James Pierpont, one of Yale's original founders. Given by established public figures, Castle Lectures are intended to promote reflection on the moral foundations of society and government and to enhance understanding of ethical issues facing individuals in our complex modern society. *<^\jiii,\,ni,o 7 A Different Kind of American Foreign Policy 181 notes 195 INDEX 217 vm Preface The subject of this book is American foreign policy since the al-Qaida attacks of September 11, 2001.

Falling Behind: Explaining the Development Gap Between Latin America and the United States by Francis Fukuyama

Andrei Shleifer, Atahualpa, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, British Empire, business climate, Cass Sunstein, central bank independence, collective bargaining, colonial rule, conceptual framework, creative destruction, crony capitalism, European colonialism, Fall of the Berlin Wall, first-past-the-post, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Francisco Pizarro, Hernando de Soto, income inequality, income per capita, land reform, land tenure, Monroe Doctrine, moral hazard, New Urbanism, oil shock, open economy, public intellectual, purchasing power parity, rent-seeking, Ronald Reagan, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, total factor productivity, trade liberalization, transaction costs, upwardly mobile, Washington Consensus, zero-sum game

His most recent publications include Cuba hoy: Analizando su pasado, imaginando su futuro (2006); and, as coeditor with B. K. Kim, Between Compliance and Conflict: East Asia, Latin America, and the “New” Pax Americana (2005). Francis Fukuyama is director of the International Development Program and Bernard L. Schwartz Professor of International Political Economy at the Johns Hopkins University Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies. Among his most salient works are The End of History and the Last Man (1992); State-Building: Governance and World Order in the 21st Century (2004); and America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy (2006).

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The Latin American Equilibrium, 161 James A. Robinson 8. Do Defective Institutions Explain the Development Gap between the United States and Latin America?, 194 Francis Fukuyama 9. Why Institutions Matter: Fiscal Citizenship in Argentina and the United States, 222 Natalio R. Botana 10. Conclusion, 268 Francis Fukuyama Contributors, 297 Index, 301 xiv Contents falling behind This page intentionally left blank 1 Introduction francis fukuyama I n 1492, on the eve of the European settlement and colonization of the New World, Bolivia and Peru hosted richer and more complex civilizations than any that existed in North America.

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Thanks are also due to Valeria Sobrino, who provided key logistical support, and Charles Roberts, who translated into English all of the chapters originally written in Spanish. Finally, special recognition is due to Guadalupe Paz, associate director of the Latin American Studies Program at SAIS, for her help in editing the English version of this volume and her general support of the project as a whole. Francis Fukuyama This page intentionally left blank Contents 1. Introduction, 3 Francis Fukuyama Part I: The Historical Context 2. Two Centuries of South American Reflections on the Development Gap between the United States and Latin America, 11 Tulio Halperin Donghi 3. Looking at Them: A Mexican Perspective on the Gap with the United States, 48 Enrique Krauze 4.

The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution by Francis Fukuyama

Admiral Zheng, agricultural Revolution, Andrei Shleifer, Asian financial crisis, Ayatollah Khomeini, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, blood diamond, California gold rush, cognitive dissonance, colonial rule, conceptual framework, correlation does not imply causation, currency manipulation / currency intervention, Day of the Dead, demographic transition, Deng Xiaoping, double entry bookkeeping, endogenous growth, equal pay for equal work, European colonialism, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Francisco Pizarro, Garrett Hardin, Hernando de Soto, hiring and firing, invention of agriculture, invention of the printing press, John Perry Barlow, Khyber Pass, land reform, land tenure, means of production, offshore financial centre, out of africa, Peace of Westphalia, principal–agent problem, RAND corporation, rent-seeking, Right to Buy, Scramble for Africa, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), spice trade, Stephen Hawking, Steven Pinker, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, Thomas Malthus, trade route, Tragedy of the Commons, transaction costs, Washington Consensus, zero-sum game

ALSO BY FRANCIS FUKUYAMA America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy State-Building: Governance and World Order in the Twenty-first Century Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity The End of History and the Last Man NOTES PREFACE 1 Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies. With a New Foreword by Francis Fukuyama (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006). 2 Francis Fukuyama, State-Building: Governance and World Order in the 21st Century (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004). 3 On redistributive economic systems in general, see Karl Polanyi, “The Economy as an Instituted Process,” in Polanyi and C.

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In addition to being unable to resolve the fundamental dilemma of the free rider problem we cannot explain the enormous investment that every society makes in legitimacy.” Structure and Change in Economic History (New York: Norton, 1981), pp. 46–47. 31 Trivers, “Reciprocal Altruism.” 32 On this general topic, see Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992), chap. 13–17. 33 Robert H. Frank, Choosing the Right Pond: Human Behavior and the Quest for Status (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). 34 Ibid., pp. 21–25. Conversely, low-status human beings often suffer from chronic depression and have been successfully treated with Prozac, Zoloft, and other so-called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, which increase levels of brain serotonin.

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Three Books Against the Simoniacs (Humbert of Moyenmoutier) Three Dynasties Three Gorges Dam Three Kingdoms Tibet Tiger, Lionel Tilly, Charles Time of Troubles Timor-Leste Tocqueville, Alexis de Togo Tokugawa shogunate Tolstoy, Leo Tonga Tönnies, Ferdinand Tower of Babel, biblical story of Transoxania Transparency International Transylvania tribal societies; Arab; Chinese; European; Indian; in Latin America; law and justice in; legitimacy in; military slavery and; mitigation of conflict in; persistence to present day of; property in; religion in; state-level societies compared to; transition from or band-level organization to; Turkish; warfare and conquest by; see also kinship; lineage; specific tribes Trivers, Robert Trobriand Islands Tudors Tunisia Tuoba tribe Turcoman tribes Turenne, Henri de La Tour d’Auvergne, Vicomte de Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques Turkana people Turkish Republic Turks; in Abbasid empire; in China; in Hungary; in India; in Transylvania; see also Ottoman Empire Tursun Bey Tylor, Edward Ukraine ulama Umar, Caliph Umayyad dynasty United Nations United States; accountability in; Afghanistan and; antistatist traditions in; bureaucracy in; during cold war; dysfunctional political equilibrium in; economic crises in; homicide in; invasion of Iraq by; Japan and; local governments in; military of; modernization theory in; patronage politics in; per capital spending on government services in; rule of law in; slavery in; South Korea and; taxation in Urban II, Pope urban centers, see cities Uthman, Caliph Uzbekistan Vaishyas Vanuatu Varangians Vedas Velasco, Andres Vena, King venal officeholding: in England; in France; in Russia; in Spain Venezuela Venice, republic of Vietnam Vikings Vinogradoff, Paul violence; in agrarian societies; in chimpanzee society; in China; as driver of state formation; in England; in France; in India; in prehistoric societies; property rights and; religion and; in Russia; in state of nature; see also war Vladimir, Prince Voltaire Vorontsov, Count Vrijjis, gana-sangha chiefdom of Wahhabism Wales Wallis, John Wang, Empress of China Wang family Wang Mang Wanli emperor waqfs (Muslim charity) war; civil, see civil war; counterinsurgency; financing of; institutional innovations brought on by; in Malthusian world; in Muslim states; prisoners of; religion and; state formation driven by; in state of nature; technology of; tribal; see also specific wars War and Peace (Tolstoy) Warring States period; cities during; cultural outpourings during; education and literacy during; infantry/cavalry warfare during; kinship groupings during; map of; road and canal construction during Wealth of Nations, The (Smith) Weber, Max; on bureaucracy; on charismatic authority; on feudalism; modernization theory of; on religion Wei, state of Wei Dynasty Weingast, Barry Wei state well-field system Wen, Emperor of China Wendi, Emperor of China Westphalia, Peace of Whig history White, Leslie William I, King of England William III (William of Orange), King of England Wittfogel, Karl Woolcock, Michael World Bank World Trade Organization World War I Worms, Concordat of Wrangham, Richard Wriston, Walter Wu, Emperor of China Wu Zhao (Empress Wu) Xia Dynasty Xian, Duke Xianbei tribe Xiang Yu Xiao, Duke Xiao-wen, Emperor of China Xin dynasty Xiongnu tribe Xi Xia tribe Xu, Empress of China Xun Zi Yale University Yan, Empress of China Yangdi, Emperor of China Yang family Yang Jian Yangshao period Yanomamö Indians Y chromosome Yellow Turban rebellion Ying Zheng Young Turk movement Yuan Dynasty Yuezhi Yugoslavia Yurok Indians Yushchenko, Viktor Zaire Zakaria, Fareed zemskiy sobor zero-sum games Zhang Shicheng Zhao Kuangyin Zheng He Zhongzong, Emperor of China Zhou Dynasty; bureaucracy during; Confucianism during; Eastern (see also Spring and Autumn period; Warring States period); feudalism of; Later; Mandate of Heaven and; Western Zhu Yuangzhang Zi Chan Zoloft Zoroastrianism A NOTE ABOUT THE AUTHOR Francis Fukuyama is the Olivier Nomellini Senior Fellow at Stanford University’s Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and Resident at the Center for Democracy, Development, and the Rule of Law. He has taught at the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies of Johns Hopkins University and at the George Mason University School of Public Policy. He was a researcher at the RAND Corporation and served as the deputy director in the State Department’s policy planning staff. He is the author of The End of History and the Last Man, Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity, and America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy.

Political Order and Political Decay: From the Industrial Revolution to the Globalization of Democracy by Francis Fukuyama

Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Andrei Shleifer, Asian financial crisis, Atahualpa, banking crisis, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, blood diamond, British Empire, centre right, classic study, clean water, collapse of Lehman Brothers, colonial rule, conceptual framework, Cornelius Vanderbilt, cotton gin, crony capitalism, Day of the Dead, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, disruptive innovation, double entry bookkeeping, Edward Snowden, Erik Brynjolfsson, European colonialism, facts on the ground, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, first-past-the-post, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Francisco Pizarro, Frederick Winslow Taylor, full employment, Gini coefficient, Glass-Steagall Act, Great Leap Forward, Hernando de Soto, high-speed rail, Home mortgage interest deduction, household responsibility system, income inequality, information asymmetry, invention of the printing press, iterative process, Kickstarter, knowledge worker, labour management system, land reform, land tenure, life extension, low interest rates, low skilled workers, manufacturing employment, means of production, Menlo Park, Mohammed Bouazizi, Monroe Doctrine, moral hazard, Nelson Mandela, new economy, open economy, out of africa, Peace of Westphalia, Port of Oakland, post-industrial society, post-materialism, price discrimination, quantitative easing, RAND corporation, rent-seeking, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, scientific management, Scientific racism, Scramble for Africa, Second Machine Age, Silicon Valley, special economic zone, stem cell, subprime mortgage crisis, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, Thomas Malthus, too big to fail, trade route, transaction costs, Twitter Arab Spring, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, Vilfredo Pareto, women in the workforce, work culture , World Values Survey, zero-sum game

Wilson, Woodrow “winner-take-all” society Wolfenson, James Woolcock, Michael workers working class; conversion into middle class; voting by World Bank; Worldwide Governance Indicators World Bank Institute World Values Survey World War I World War II; Japan’s defeat in Wrong, Michela Wu Zhao Xi Jinping Yamagata Aritomo Yang, Dali Yang, Hongxing Yanukovich, Viktor Yar’Adua, Umaru Musa Yemen Yrigoyen, Hipólito Yugoslavia Zaire Zakaria, Fareed Zambia Zanzibar Zenawi, Meles Zhao, Dingxin Zhou Enlai Zhu Yuangzhang Zimbabwe ALSO BY FRANCIS FUKUYAMA The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy State-Building: Governance and World Order in the Twenty-first Century Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity The End of History and the Last Man About the Author Francis Fukuyama is the Olivier Nomellini Senior Fellow at Stanford University’s Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies.

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Nitze School of Advanced International Studies of the Johns Hopkins University and at the George Mason University School of Public Policy. Fukuyama was a researcher at the RAND Corporation and served on the State Department’s Policy Planning Staff. He is the author of The Origins of Political Order, The End of History and the Last Man, Trust, and America at the Crossroads. He lives with his wife in California. Farrar, Straus and Giroux 18 West 18th Street, New York 10011 Copyright © 2014 by Francis Fukuyama All rights reserved First edition, 2014 eBooks may be purchased for business or promotional use. For information on bulk purchases, please contact Macmillan Corporate and Premium Sales Department by writing to MacmillanSpecialMarkets@macmillan.com.

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Gellner makes the comparison of European nationalism and Middle Eastern Islamism in Nations and Nationalism, pp. 75–89. A variant of this argument is also made in Olivier Roy, Globalized Islam: The Search for a New Ummah (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004). See also Francis Fukuyama, “Identity, Immigration, and Liberal Democracy,” Journal of Democracy 17, no. 2 (2006): 5–20. 30: THE MIDDLE CLASS AND DEMOCRACY’S FUTURE 1. This chapter expands on Francis Fukuyama, “The Future of History,” Foreign Affairs 91, no. 1 (2012): 53–61. 2. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, p. 124. Gellner also makes this argument in Culture, Identity, and Politics. See also Fukuyama, “Identity, Immigration, and Liberal Democracy.” 3.

The Abandonment of the West by Michael Kimmage

Albert Einstein, anti-communist, Berlin Wall, Brexit referendum, British Empire, Charles Lindbergh, City Beautiful movement, classic study, deindustrialization, desegregation, disinformation, Donald Trump, European colonialism, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global pandemic, global supply chain, Gunnar Myrdal, interchangeable parts, Isaac Newton, It's morning again in America, Mahatma Gandhi, mass immigration, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, Monroe Doctrine, Nelson Mandela, Paris climate accords, Peace of Westphalia, profit motive, public intellectual, Ralph Waldo Emerson, RAND corporation, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, Ronald Reagan: Tear down this wall, Silicon Valley, South China Sea, Suez crisis 1956, Thomas L Friedman, transatlantic slave trade, urban planning, W. E. B. Du Bois, Washington Consensus

Bloom, Closing of the American Mind, 322, 320, 321, 380, 256. 31. Bloom, Closing of the American Mind, 312, 79, 382. 32. See Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” National Interest, no. 16 (Summer 1989): 3–18; and Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 33. On the CIA and Nelson Mandela, see Borstelmann, Cold War and the Color Line, 156. 34. Fukuyama, End of History, 323, 48. 35. Fukuyama, End of History, xiii, 7, 48. 36. Fukuyama, End of History, 18. 37. Fukuyama, End of History, 45. CHAPTER SIX: THE POST–COLUMBIAN REPUBLIC, 1992–2016 1. McNeill, Pursuit of Truth, 133, 136. 2.

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The romance of the American West signaled the application of European power, technology and law outside of Europe. It was civilization on the frontier, the opposite of civilization as decadence or overrefinement, civilization honored in the breach, mythically vigorous and thrilling. (Francis Fukuyama would conclude the End of History [1992] with a long comparison of the Western triumph after 1989 and the winning of the American West in the nineteenth century.) The historical reality was distressingly at odds with Teddy Roosevelt’s Western romance: the suppression of Native peoples and the theft of their land, the crimes of civilizational entitlement and of empire.

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Perhaps the victorious West could absolve itself of its own guilt, of American misdeeds in Vietnam or of Europe’s misdeeds in Africa, in a new birth of freedom outside of Europe. Simplified story lines in Eastern Europe and Africa alike, these simultaneous liberations were the most captivating news of 1989 and 1990.33 Liberation had great currency for the author of The End of History and the Last Man. From the nineteenth-century German philosopher Hegel, Francis Fukuyama adopted the notion that all people seek recognition in addition to physical well-being. Tracking this notion, Fukuyama regarded much human history until the Renaissance as deformed by a master-slave dynamic. A few masters robbed the many slaves of recognition.

The Age of Illusions: How America Squandered Its Cold War Victory by Andrew J. Bacevich

affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Alan Greenspan, anti-communist, Bear Stearns, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, clean water, Columbian Exchange, Credit Default Swap, cuban missile crisis, David Brooks, deindustrialization, Donald Trump, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, friendly fire, gig economy, Glass-Steagall Act, global village, Gordon Gekko, greed is good, Greenspan put, illegal immigration, income inequality, Jeff Bezos, Kickstarter, Marshall McLuhan, mass incarceration, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, Monroe Doctrine, Norman Mailer, obamacare, Occupy movement, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, planetary scale, plutocrats, Potemkin village, price stability, Project for a New American Century, Ronald Reagan, Ronald Reagan: Tear down this wall, Saturday Night Live, school choice, Seymour Hersh, Silicon Valley, Steve Bannon, Thomas L Friedman, too big to fail, traumatic brain injury, trickle-down economics, We are all Keynesians now, WikiLeaks

“Responses to Fukuyama,” National Interest (Summer 1989). 30. Strobe Talbott, “The Beginning of Nonsense,” Time (September 11, 1989). 31. For contemporaneous synopses of that debate, see Henry Allen, “The End. Or Is It? Francis Fukuyama and the Schism over His Ism,” Washington Post (September 27, 1989); and Richard Bernstein, “The End of History, Explained for the Second Time,” New York Times (December 10, 1989). 32. Francis Fukuyama, “After Neoconservatism,” New York Times Magazine (February 19, 2006). 3. KICKING 41 TO THE CURB 1. For a colorful contemporaneous account of Trump’s troubles, see Marie Brenner, “After the Gold Rush,” Vanity Fair (September 1990). 2.

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Just three months prior to the opening of the Berlin Wall, an article published in the National Interest, a Washington-based quarterly of meager circulation, had created among policy intellectuals a remarkable stir. The author was Francis Fukuyama, hitherto a little-known policy analyst. The title of the piece that vaulted him to instantaneous fame: “The End of History?” The cautious question mark reflected an editorial misjudgment. Given the essay’s expansive claims and eventual impact, an exclamation point would have been far more appropriate. As a milestone in American intellectual history, Fukuyama’s essay belongs in the category of writings that capture something essential about the moment in which they appear, while simultaneously shaping expectations about what lies ahead.

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For an important and underappreciated accounting, incorporating both second thoughts and sober reflection, see Derek Leebaert, The Fifty-Year Wound (New York, 2002). 21. Alfred Thayer Mahan, “The United States Looking Outward,” Atlantic (December 1890). 22. Frederick Jackson Turner, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History” (1893). 23. Rudyard Kipling, “The White Man’s Burden” (1899). 24. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” National Interest (Summer 1989). 25. “X” [George F. Kennan], “The Sources of Soviet Conduct,” Foreign Affairs (July 1947). 26. Walter Lippmann, The Cold War: A Study in U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Harper, 1947). For an excerpt, see https://www.learner.org/workshops/primarysources/coldwar/docs/lippman.html, accessed July 12, 2017. 27.

The Retreat of Western Liberalism by Edward Luce

"World Economic Forum" Davos, 3D printing, affirmative action, Airbnb, Alan Greenspan, basic income, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Boris Johnson, Branko Milanovic, bread and circuses, Bretton Woods, Brexit referendum, business cycle, call centre, carried interest, centre right, Charles Lindbergh, cognitive dissonance, colonial exploitation, colonial rule, computer age, corporate raider, cuban missile crisis, currency manipulation / currency intervention, disinformation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Doha Development Round, Donald Trump, double entry bookkeeping, driverless car, Erik Brynjolfsson, European colonialism, everywhere but in the productivity statistics, Evgeny Morozov, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, gentrification, George Santayana, gig economy, Gini coefficient, global pandemic, global supply chain, Great Leap Forward, illegal immigration, imperial preference, income inequality, independent contractor, informal economy, Internet of things, Jaron Lanier, knowledge economy, lateral thinking, Les Trente Glorieuses, liberal capitalism, Marc Andreessen, Mark Zuckerberg, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, means of production, meritocracy, microaggression, Monroe Doctrine, moral panic, more computing power than Apollo, mutually assured destruction, new economy, New Urbanism, Norman Mailer, offshore financial centre, one-China policy, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, Peace of Westphalia, Peter Thiel, plutocrats, precariat, purchasing power parity, reserve currency, reshoring, Richard Florida, Robert Gordon, Robert Solow, Ronald Reagan, Second Machine Age, self-driving car, sharing economy, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley billionaire, Skype, Snapchat, software is eating the world, South China Sea, Steve Bannon, Steve Jobs, superstar cities, telepresence, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, universal basic income, unpaid internship, Washington Consensus, We are the 99%, We wanted flying cars, instead we got 140 characters, white flight, World Values Survey, Yogi Berra

In 1989 its schism was healed. By unifying its booming western wing with the shrivelled post-Stalinist eastern one, there was no longer any quarrel between the present and the present. Shortly before the Berlin Wall fell, Francis Fukuyama published his famous essay, ‘The End of History?’. ‘What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War . . . but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalisation of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government,’ he wrote.1 Though I did not subscribe to Fukuyama’s view of the ideal society I shared his relief.

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It would be lethal malpractice to continue writing off half of society as hidebound. Someone once said that the difference between erotica and pornography is the lighting. There is an equally hazy line between illiberal democracy and autocracy. We will know the difference when we see it. NOTES Preface 1 Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, National Interest (summer 1989). 2 Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes, 1941–1991 (Abacus, London, 1995). 3 Dan Jones, Magna Carta: The Birth of Liberty (Viking, New York, 2015), p. 4. 4 Interview with the author, January 2017. 5 Fareed Zakaria, The Post-American World: And the Rise of the Rest (Penguin, New York, 2009). 6 Henry Kissinger, World Order (Penguin, New York, 2014).

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Since the turn of the millennium, and particularly over the last decade, no fewer than twenty-five democracies have failed around the world, three of them in Europe (Russia, Turkey and Hungary). In all but Tunisia, the Arab Spring was swallowed by the summer heat. Is the Western god of liberal democracy failing? ‘It is an open question whether this is a market correction in democracy, or a global depression,’ Francis Fukuyama tells me.4 The backlash of the West’s middle classes, who are the biggest losers in a global economy that has been rapidly converging, but still has decades to go, has been brewing since the early 1990s. In Britain we call them the ‘left-behinds’. In France, they are the ‘couches moyennes’. In America, they are the ‘squeezed middle’.

Why Liberalism Failed by Patrick J. Deneen

classic study, David Brooks, Donald Trump, en.wikipedia.org, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, income inequality, intentional community, Lewis Mumford, mortgage debt, Nicholas Carr, plutocrats, price mechanism, rolling blackouts, Ronald Reagan, shared worldview, Steven Levy, the scientific method, Thomas L Friedman, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, women in the workforce, zero-sum game

Nicholas Carr, The Shallows: What the Internet Is Doing to our Brains (New York: Norton, 2010). 3. Sherry Turkle, Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other (New York: Basic, 2011). 4. Neil Postman, Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology (New York: Vintage, 1993). 5. Ibid., 28. 6. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992); Francis Fukuyama, Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002). 7. Daniel J. Boorstin, The Republic of Technology: Reflections on Our Future Community (New York: Harper and Row, 1978), 5. 8. Stephen Marche, “Is Facebook Making Us Lonely?”

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Liberalism is credited with the cessation of religious war, the opening of an age of tolerance and equality, the expanding spheres of personal opportunity and social interaction that today culminate in globalization, and the ongoing victories over sexism, racism, colonialism, heteronormativity, and a host of other unacceptable prejudices that divide, demean, and segregate. Liberalism’s victory was declared to be unqualified and complete in 1989 in the seminal article “The End of History” by Francis Fukuyama, written following the collapse of the last competing ideological opponent.5 Fukuyama held that liberalism had proved itself the sole legitimate regime on the basis that it had withstood all challengers and defeated all competitors and further, that it worked because it accorded with human nature.

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The culture offers entertaining prophecies born of our anxieties, and we take perverse pleasure distracting ourselves with portrayals of our powerlessness. One example of this genre of technological (as well as political) inevitability, albeit framed in a triumphalist mode, is the narrative advanced by Francis Fukuyama in his famous essay, and later book, The End of History. The book, in particular, provides a long materialist explanation of the inescapable scientific logic, driven by the need for constant advances in military technology, contributing to the ultimate rise of the liberal state. Only the liberal state, in Fukuyama’s view, could provide the environment for the open scientific inquiry that has led to the greatest advances in military devices and tactics.

The Great Surge: The Ascent of the Developing World by Steven Radelet

Admiral Zheng, agricultural Revolution, Asian financial crisis, bank run, Berlin Wall, biodiversity loss, Boeing 747, Branko Milanovic, business climate, business process, call centre, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, clean water, colonial rule, creative destruction, demographic dividend, Deng Xiaoping, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Doha Development Round, Erik Brynjolfsson, European colonialism, export processing zone, F. W. de Klerk, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Gini coefficient, global pandemic, global supply chain, Great Leap Forward, income inequality, income per capita, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invention of the steam engine, James Watt: steam engine, John Snow's cholera map, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Arrow, land reform, low interest rates, low skilled workers, M-Pesa, megacity, middle-income trap, Mikhail Gorbachev, Nelson Mandela, off grid, oil shock, out of africa, purchasing power parity, race to the bottom, randomized controlled trial, Robert Gordon, Robert Solow, Second Machine Age, secular stagnation, Shenzhen special economic zone , Sheryl Sandberg, Simon Kuznets, South China Sea, special economic zone, standardized shipping container, Steven Pinker, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, three-masted sailing ship, trade route, women in the workforce, working poor

John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, “The State of the State: The Global Contest for the Future of Government,” Foreign Affairs, July/August 2014, p. 119. 3. Samuel Huntington, “Democracy’s Third Wave,” Journal of Democracy 2, no. 2 (Spring 1991): 15–16, www.ou.edu/uschina/gries/articles/IntPol/Huntington.91.Demo.3rd.pdf/. 4. Francis Fukuyama, “At the ‘End of History’ Still Stands Democracy,” Wall Street Journal, June 6, 2014, www.wsj.com/articles/at-the-end-of-history-still-stands-democracy-1402080661. 5. Alan Neuhauser, “U.S., China Reach Historic Climate Accord,” U.S. News and World Report, November 12, 2014, www.usnews.com/news/articles/2014/11/12/us-china-reach-historic-climate-change-accord. 6.

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—George Soros, chairman of Soros Fund Management “Steven Radelet’s brilliant new book demonstrates how the world has actually gotten better in recent years, not by a little but by a lot. This is a careful antidote to today’s fashionable pessimism and should be read by everyone.” —Francis Fukuyama, author of The End of History “With the airwaves filled with news of insurrection, desperation and stubborn diseases, this book jars you out of a cliched response. With his typical care and detail, Steve describes humanity’s greatest hits over the last twenty years—never have we lived in a time when so many are doing so well.

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People around the world could watch in real time as Marcos boarded a plane to flee to Hawaii, Chinese protestors stood up in Tiananmen Square, the Berlin Wall fell, governments in Eastern Europe collapsed, and Mandela walked out of jail. By the early 1990s, dramatic change had begun, as political scientist and author Francis Fukuyama described in his masterpiece The End of History and the Last Man: The most remarkable development of the last quarter of the twentieth century has been the revelation of enormous weaknesses at the core of the world’s seemingly strong dictatorships, whether they be of the military-authoritarian Right, or the communist-totalitarian Left.

American Secession: The Looming Threat of a National Breakup by F. H. Buckley

Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Andrei Shleifer, belling the cat, Bernie Sanders, British Empire, Cass Sunstein, colonial rule, crony capitalism, desegregation, diversified portfolio, Donald Trump, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, guns versus butter model, hindsight bias, illegal immigration, immigration reform, income inequality, low interest rates, Michael Milken, military-industrial complex, old-boy network, Paris climate accords, race to the bottom, Republic of Letters, reserve currency, Ronald Coase, Stephen Fry, Suez crisis 1956, transaction costs, Washington Consensus, wealth creators

When a state liberalized its economy it would create a middle class that would demand political freedom. That seemed to be what had happened in Chile, when the freemarket Pinochet regime was followed by a liberal democracy. Insofar as this pattern was spreading around the globe, it represented what Francis Fukuyama called “the end of history,” the point where the big questions of politics have been settled. The best possible kind of state is one with a free-market economy and guarantees of personal and political liberty.1 That’s as good as it gets. But now China presents us with a rival model, a “Beijing Consensus,” granting its people economic freedoms while denying them political liberty.

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Walter Kaufmann (New York: Penguin, 1954), pp. 226–27. 16 Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 2nd ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1954), p. 25. 17 Melanie Mason, “Single-payer healthcare could cost $400 billion to implement in California,” Los Angeles Times, May 22, 2017. CHAPTER 8—BIGNESS AND FREEDOM 1 Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Avon, 1992), p. 204. 2 World Bank, State of the Poor, April 17, 2013. 3 George Orwell, “The Freedom of the Press,” unused preface to Animal Farm published in the Times Literary Supplement, September 15, 1972. 4 Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, Part 2, Bk. 11.6, in Œuvres complètes (Paris: Gallimard, 1952), p. 397. 5 Others are the Polity IV measure of constitutional democracy, Tatu Vanhalen’s assessment of participatory democracy, and the measure of contested democracy provided by Adam Przeworski and his colleagues.

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—William Bennett, former Secretary of Education This is Buckley at his colorful, muckraking best—an intelligent, powerful, but depressing argument laced with humor. —Gordon S. Wood, Pulitzer Prize winner Praise for The Way Back: Restoring the Promise of America Frank Buckley marshals tremendous data and insight in a compelling study. —Francis Fukuyama Best book of the year. —Michael Anton Praise for The Once and Future King: The Rise of Crown Government in America His prose explodes with energy. —James Ceasar THE LOOMING THREAT OF A NATIONAL BREAKUP American Secession F. H. BUCKLEY © 2020 by F.H. Buckley All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of Encounter Books, 900 Broadway, Suite 601, New York, New York, 10003.

The Great Delusion: Liberal Dreams and International Realities by John J. Mearsheimer

"World Economic Forum" Davos, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Ayatollah Khomeini, Cass Sunstein, Chelsea Manning, Clive Stafford Smith, Donald Trump, drone strike, Edward Snowden, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, global village, Great Leap Forward, Gunnar Myrdal, invisible hand, laissez-faire capitalism, liberal world order, military-industrial complex, Monroe Doctrine, mutually assured destruction, Peace of Westphalia, Richard Thaler, Ronald Reagan, South China Sea, Steven Pinker, Suez crisis 1956, Ted Kaczynski, Thomas L Friedman, transaction costs

Jeremy Waldron, “How Judges Should Judge,” review of Justice in Robes, by Ronald Dworkin, New York Review of Books, August 10, 2006. 34. Quotes in this paragraph are from Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, pp. 296, 298, 338. 35. Quotes in this paragraph are from Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, pp. 128, 294, 332, 334. Not surprisingly, Fukuyama is even less confident today about his 1989 predictions than he was when he wrote The End of History and the Last Man in 1992. See, for example, Francis Fukuyama, “At the ‘End of History’ Still Stands Democracy,” Wall Street Journal, June 6, 2014. 36. Stephen Holmes, “The Scowl of Minerva,” New Republic, March 23, 1992, p. 28.

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Until the Cold War ended, however, spreading liberal democracy always took a backseat to hard-nosed policies based on power politics, which sometimes involved overthrowing democratically elected leaders and having cozy relations with brutal autocrats. The United States, in other words, was not in a position to adopt liberal hegemony until 1989. 3. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?,” National Interest, no. 16 (Summer 1989), pp. 3–18. Also see Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 4. “The 1992 Campaign; Excerpts from Speech by Clinton on U.S. Role,” New York Times, October 2, 1992. 5. “President Discusses the Future of Iraq,” Hilton Hotel, Washington, DC, February 26, 2003.

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To be fair, Dworkin understands that applying moral principles to hard cases will be an especially difficult task, which is why he calls his ideal judge “Hercules.” Ronald Dworkin, Law’s Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986), pp. 238–40. 31. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992), p. xii. The remaining quotes in this paragraph are from Fukuyama, “The End of History?,” pp. 4, 5, 18. 32. The quotes in this paragraph are from Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (New York: Viking, 2011), pp. 182, 650, 662, 690–91. On page 692, Pinker, sounding like Fukuyama talking about the ineluctable spread of liberal democracy, writes that “many liberalizing reforms that originated in Western Europe or on the American coasts have been emulated, after a time lag, by the more conservative parts of the world.” 33.

Ten Lessons for a Post-Pandemic World by Fareed Zakaria

"there is no alternative" (TINA), 15-minute city, AlphaGo, An Inconvenient Truth, anti-fragile, Asian financial crisis, basic income, Bernie Sanders, Boris Johnson, butterfly effect, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, car-free, carbon tax, central bank independence, clean water, cloud computing, colonial rule, contact tracing, coronavirus, COVID-19, Credit Default Swap, David Graeber, Day of the Dead, deep learning, DeepMind, deglobalization, Demis Hassabis, Deng Xiaoping, digital divide, Dominic Cummings, Donald Trump, Edward Glaeser, Edward Jenner, Elon Musk, Erik Brynjolfsson, failed state, financial engineering, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, gentrification, George Floyd, gig economy, Gini coefficient, global pandemic, global reserve currency, global supply chain, green new deal, hiring and firing, housing crisis, imperial preference, income inequality, Indoor air pollution, invention of the wheel, Jane Jacobs, Jeff Bezos, Jeremy Corbyn, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John Snow's cholera map, junk bonds, lockdown, Long Term Capital Management, low interest rates, manufacturing employment, Marc Andreessen, Mark Zuckerberg, Martin Wolf, means of production, megacity, Mexican peso crisis / tequila crisis, middle-income trap, Monroe Doctrine, Nate Silver, Nick Bostrom, oil shock, open borders, out of africa, Parag Khanna, Paris climate accords, Peter Thiel, plutocrats, popular capitalism, Productivity paradox, purchasing power parity, remote working, reserve currency, reshoring, restrictive zoning, ride hailing / ride sharing, Ronald Reagan, secular stagnation, Silicon Valley, social distancing, software is eating the world, South China Sea, Steve Bannon, Steve Jobs, Steven Pinker, Suez crisis 1956, TED Talk, the built environment, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, The inhabitant of London could order by telephone, sipping his morning tea in bed, the various products of the whole earth, The Spirit Level, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, Tim Cook: Apple, trade route, UNCLOS, universal basic income, urban planning, Washington Consensus, white flight, Works Progress Administration, zoonotic diseases

,” New York Times, October 8, 2018. 62 “Another ideological god has failed”: Martin Wolf, “Seeds of Its Own Destruction: The Scope of Government Is Again Widening and the Era of Free-Wheeling Finance Is Over,” Financial Times, March 8, 2009. 62 “Capitalism will be different”: Joe Weisenthal, “Geithner Tells Charlie Rose: Capitalism Will Be Different,” Business Insider, March 11, 2009. 62 Could we do so again?: For another observer skeptical that this will mean a break with free market orthodoxy, see: Lane Kenworthy, “The Pandemic Won’t Usher In an American Welfare State,” Foreign Affairs, May 1, 2020. 63 “end of history”: Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 63 “We can only harness”: President William J. Clinton, “Remarks on Signing the North American Free Trade Agreement Implementation Act,” December 8, 1993, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: William J. Clinton (1993, Book II), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PPP-1993-book2/html/PPP-1993-book2-doc-pg2139-3.htm. 63 “golden straitjacket”: Thomas L.

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All societies from the earliest of times began with political systems that Max Weber famously described as “patrimonial,” meaning simply rule by a strongman. The regime was just his family, friends, and allies. Political power and economic power were fused, creating a system that was deeply unrepresentative yet effective. Francis Fukuyama describes the strength of patrimonial systems: “They are constructed using the basic building blocks of human sociability, that is, the biological inclination of people to favor family and friends with whom they have exchanged reciprocal favors.” The patrimonial system has deep roots in human society and has lasted through the millennia.

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He begins with the failure of American government during the pandemic but goes well beyond it, asking why the United States can no longer imagine and execute large projects—building more housing and better infrastructure, reviving manufacturing at home, expanding higher education to millions more people, and so on. He offers some theories: inertia, a lack of imagination, and the influence of established incumbents wary of competition. But the real reason is much deeper than that. America has become what Francis Fukuyama calls a “vetocracy.” The system of checks and balances, replicated at every level of government, ensures that someone, somewhere can always block any positive action. The United States has become a nation of naysayers. Marc Dunkelman, a tenacious researcher, spent years digging into the history of efforts to renovate and rebuild Manhattan’s Pennsylvania Station.

The Light That Failed: A Reckoning by Ivan Krastev, Stephen Holmes

active measures, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Andrei Shleifer, anti-communist, anti-globalists, bank run, Berlin Wall, Black Lives Matter, borderless world, Brexit referendum, corporate governance, David Brooks, deglobalization, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, disinformation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Donald Trump, failed state, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, illegal immigration, Kickstarter, knowledge economy, kremlinology, liberal world order, mass immigration, Mikhail Gorbachev, Neil Armstrong, nuclear winter, obamacare, offshore financial centre, open borders, post-truth, postnationalism / post nation state, reserve currency, Ronald Reagan, shared worldview, South China Sea, Steve Bannon, the market place, Thorstein Veblen, too big to fail, Twitter Arab Spring, WikiLeaks

Michiko Kakutani, The Death of Truth: Notes on Falsehood in the Age of Trump (Tim Duggan Books, 2018), p. 26. 12. Ben Rhodes, The World as It Is: A Memoir of the Obama White House (Random House, 2018). 13. Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, National Interest (Summer 1989), pp. 12, 3, 5, 8, 13; The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992), p. 45. 14. Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, p. 12. 15. If describing American-style liberalism as the final stage of history felt unremarkable to many Americans, it felt the same not only to dissidents but also to ordinary people who grew up behind the Iron Curtain.

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Special thanks go to our agent Toby Mundy and our editor Casiana Ionita for their steady encouragement and thoughtful advice. As usual, Yana Papazova’s tireless assistance proved invaluable. Notes INTRODUCTION: IMITATION AND ITS DISCONTENTS 1. Robert Cooper, ‘The Meaning of 1989’, The Prospect (20 December 1999). 2. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992), p. 46. 3. Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (eds.), The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Timothy Garton Ash, Free World: America, Europe, and the Surprising Future of the West (Random House, 2004). 4.

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Bagger describes the West German consensus on this after 1989 as follows: ‘China would only be able to continue its miraculous economic rise if it introduced individual liberties. Only a free and open society could unleash the creativity that was at the core of economic innovation and success in the information age.’ Thomas Bagger, ‘The World According to Germany: Reassessing 1989’, Washington Quarterly (22 January 2019), p. 55. 8. Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, National Interest (Summer 1989), p. 12. 9. ‘China is reversing the commonly held vision of technology as a great democratizer, bringing people more freedom and connecting them to the world. In China, it has brought control.’ Paul Mozur, ‘Inside China’s Dystopian Dreams: A.I., Shame and Lots of Cameras’, The New York Times (8 June 2018). 10.

Pax Technica: How the Internet of Things May Set Us Free or Lock Us Up by Philip N. Howard

Aaron Swartz, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Berlin Wall, bitcoin, blood diamond, Bretton Woods, Brian Krebs, British Empire, butter production in bangladesh, call centre, Chelsea Manning, citizen journalism, Citizen Lab, clean water, cloud computing, corporate social responsibility, creative destruction, crowdsourcing, digital map, Edward Snowden, en.wikipedia.org, Evgeny Morozov, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, feminist movement, Filter Bubble, Firefox, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Google Earth, Hacker News, Howard Rheingold, income inequality, informal economy, information security, Internet of things, John Perry Barlow, Julian Assange, Kibera, Kickstarter, land reform, M-Pesa, Marshall McLuhan, megacity, Mikhail Gorbachev, mobile money, Mohammed Bouazizi, national security letter, Nelson Mandela, Network effects, obamacare, Occupy movement, off-the-grid, packet switching, pension reform, prediction markets, sentiment analysis, Silicon Valley, Skype, spectrum auction, statistical model, Stuxnet, Tactical Technology Collective, technological determinism, trade route, Twitter Arab Spring, undersea cable, uranium enrichment, WikiLeaks, zero day

And online search habits leading up to an election help predict which candidates will win.43 Around the world, being a modern politician means more than having a decent website. It means being able to work with the information infrastructure that young citizens are using to form their political identities. Ideologies, like governments, have lost much of their ability to exclusively and comprehensively frame events. Indeed, the claim of Francis Fukuyama’s “End of History” argument is that there will be no more great ideologies because capitalism has triumphed over all of its rivals. While it may be true that there have been no great ideologies since the arrival of the civilian internet, it’s also true that when there are ideological battles, they happen online.

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“Hooking up,” Economist, January 31, 2013, accessed September 30, 2014, http://www.economist.com/news/international/21571126-new-data-flows-highlight-relative-decline-west-hooking-up. 7. Anne-Marie Slaughter, A New World Order (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009). 8. World Affairs Council, “Press Conference” (Regent Beverly Wilshire Hotel, April 19, 1994); Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006); G. John Ikenberry, “The Myth of Post–Cold War Chaos,” Foreign Affairs 75, no. 3 (May 1996): 79–91. 9. James Ball, “Meet the Seven People Who Hold the Keys to Worldwide Internet Security,” Guardian, February 28, 2014, accessed September 30, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/feb/28/seven-people-keys-worldwide-internet-security-web; “Internet Society,” accessed June 16, 2014, http://www.internetsociety.org/; “ICANN,” accessed June 16, 2014, https://www.icann.org/. 10.

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Cisco, Cisco Visual Networking Index: Global Mobile Data Traffic Forecast Update, 2013–2018 (San Jose, CA: Cisco, February 2014), accessed September 30, 2014, http://cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/collateral/service-provider/visual-networking-index-vni/white_paper_c11–520862.html. 25. Larry Diamond, “Why Are There No Arab Democracies?” Journal of Democracy 21, no. 1 (2010): 93–112. 26. Howard and Hussain, Democracy’s Fourth Wave? 27. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, reissue ed. (New York: Free Press, 2006). 28. Clive Southey, “The Staples Thesis, Common Property, and Homesteading,” Canadian Journal of Economics 11, no. 3 (1978): 547–59, doi:10.2307/134323. 29. Lita Person, Mobile Wallet (NFC, Digital Wallet) Market (Applications, Mode of Payment, Stakeholders, and Geography)—Global Share, Size, Industry Analysis, Trends, Opportunities, Growth, and Forecast, 2012–2020 (Portland, OR: Allied Market Research, November 2013), accessed September 30, 2014, http://www.alliedmarketresearch.com/mobile-wallet-market; Marion Williams, “The Regulatory Tension over Mobile Money,” Australian Banking and Finance, February 17, 2014, accessed September 30, 2014, http://www.australianbankingfinance.com/banking/the-regulatory-tension-over-mobile-money/. 30.

Trust: The Social Virtue and the Creation of Prosperity by Francis Fukuyama

Alvin Toffler, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, blue-collar work, business climate, business cycle, capital controls, classic study, collective bargaining, corporate governance, corporate raider, creative destruction, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, deskilling, double entry bookkeeping, equal pay for equal work, European colonialism, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frederick Winslow Taylor, full employment, George Gilder, glass ceiling, Glass-Steagall Act, global village, Gunnar Myrdal, hiring and firing, industrial robot, Jane Jacobs, job satisfaction, joint-stock company, joint-stock limited liability company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kanban, Kenneth Arrow, land reform, liberal capitalism, liberation theology, low skilled workers, manufacturing employment, mittelstand, price mechanism, profit maximization, RAND corporation, rent-seeking, Ronald Coase, scientific management, Silicon Valley, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, The Nature of the Firm, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, transaction costs, transfer pricing, traveling salesman, union organizing, vertical integration, W. E. B. Du Bois

Now that the question of ideology and institutions has been settled, the preservation and accumulation of social capital will occupy center stage. NOTES CHAPTER 1. ON THE HUMAN SITUATION AT THE END OF HISTORY 1See Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 2For an excellent discussion of the origins of civil society and its relationship to democracy, see Ernest Gellner, Conditions and Liberty: Civil Society and Its Rivals (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1994). 3For a more detailed discussion of this point, see Francis Fukuyama, “The Primacy of Culture,” Journal of Democracy 6 (1995): 7-14. 4Samuel P. Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations?”

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For a hostile Western account of the literature on Japanese uniqueness, or nihonjinron, see Peter N. Dale, The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1986). CHAPTER 30. AFTER THE END OF SOCIAL ENGINEERING 1See Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 2In addition, virtually all of the central themes of this book concerning the importance of culture to economic behavior were anticipated in my earlier work. See Fukuyama (1992), chaps. 20, 21; and “The End of History?” National Interest, no. 16 (Summer 1989): 3-18, where I discuss the Weber hypothesis and the impact of culture. 3This point is argued in David Gellner, “Max Weber: Capitalism and the Religion of India,” Sociology 16 (1982): 526-543. 4Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958), vol 1. 5This point is made in Ernest Gellner, Plough, Sword, and Book: The Structure of Human History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), pp. 39-69.

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THE SPIRITUALIZATION OF ECONOMIC LIFE 1The correlation between democracy and development is explored by Seymour Martin Lipset, “Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy,” American Political Science Review 53 (1959): 69-105. For a review of the literature on the Lipset hypothesis that largely confirms this point, see Larry Diamond, “Economic Development and Democracy Reconsidered,” American Behavioral Scientist 15 (March-June 1992): 450-499. 2For a summary of this argument, see Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992), pp. xi-xxiii. 3This is described on pp. 143-180 of Fukuyama (1992). 4Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (Indianapolis: Liberty Classics, 1982), p. 50. 5Albert O. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests: Political Arguments for Capitalism Before Its Triumph (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977).

Twilight of Abundance: Why the 21st Century Will Be Nasty, Brutish, and Short by David Archibald

Bakken shale, carbon tax, Climategate, Climatic Research Unit, deindustrialization, energy security, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Great Leap Forward, Herman Kahn, income per capita, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), means of production, Medieval Warm Period, mutually assured destruction, ocean acidification, oil shale / tar sands, oil shock, out of africa, peak oil, price discovery process, rising living standards, sceptred isle, South China Sea, University of East Anglia, uranium enrichment, Yom Kippur War

CHAPTER SIX CHINA WANTS A WAR And there appeared another wonder in heaven; and behold a great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads. —Revelation 12:3 After the collapse of most Communist states in 1990, the world appeared to have entered a period of permanent peace. Stanford University–based political scientist Francis Fukuyama called it “the end of history,” in which democracy and free-market capitalism would become the final form of human government.1 In response to Fukuyama’s 1992 book, Harvard political scientist Samuel Huntington penned an article entitled “The Clash of Civilizations?,” which he expanded into a 1996 book entitled The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.2 Huntington argued that now that the age of ideological conflict between Communism and capitalism had ended, civilizational conflict, the normal state of affairs in the world, would reassert itself.

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Originally published as Der Untergang des Abenlandes, Munich: C. H. Beck’sche Verlagbuchhandlung, 1918. Chapter 1: The Time Is at Hand 1.Alexandra Smith, “Food, Too, Is Wasted on the Young,” Sydney Morning Herald, June 20, 2012, http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/food-too-is-wasted-on-the-young-20120719-22d32.html. 2.Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 3.Eigil Friis-Christensen and Knud Lassen, “Length of the Solar Cycle: An Indicator of Solar Activity Closely Associated with Climate,” Science 254 (1991): 698–700. 4.David Archibald, The Past and Future of Climate (Rhaetian Management, 2010). 5.J.

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Martin’s Griffin, 2013). 6.Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impacts, 2002 update of Chernobyl: Ten Years On (Nuclear Energy Agency, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2002), http://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/chernobyl/. Chapter 6: China Wants a War 1.Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 2.Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996). 3.Edward Luttwark, The Rise of China vs. the Logic of Strategy (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2012). 4.Paul Monk, “A Fox’s Thoughts about China and Australia’s Security,” Quadrant, April 2013. 5.Manuel Quinones, “Alternative Fuels: Coal-to-Liquids’ Prospects Dim, but Boosters Won’t Say Die,” Greenwire, May 17, 2013, http://www.eenews.net/stories/1059981383. 6.Ronald O’Rourke, China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S.

The Fourth Revolution: The Global Race to Reinvent the State by John Micklethwait, Adrian Wooldridge

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Admiral Zheng, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Asian financial crisis, assortative mating, banking crisis, barriers to entry, battle of ideas, Berlin Wall, Bernie Madoff, bike sharing, Boris Johnson, Bretton Woods, British Empire, cashless society, central bank independence, Chelsea Manning, circulation of elites, classic study, Clayton Christensen, Corn Laws, corporate governance, credit crunch, crony capitalism, Deng Xiaoping, Detroit bankruptcy, disintermediation, Disneyland with the Death Penalty, driverless car, Edward Snowden, Etonian, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Gunnar Myrdal, income inequality, James Carville said: "I would like to be reincarnated as the bond market. You can intimidate everybody.", junk bonds, Khan Academy, Kickstarter, knowledge economy, Kodak vs Instagram, labor-force participation, laissez-faire capitalism, land reform, Les Trente Glorieuses, liberal capitalism, Martin Wolf, means of production, Michael Milken, minimum wage unemployment, mittelstand, mobile money, Mont Pelerin Society, Nelson Mandela, night-watchman state, Norman Macrae, obamacare, oil shale / tar sands, old age dependency ratio, open economy, Parag Khanna, Peace of Westphalia, pension reform, pensions crisis, personalized medicine, Peter Thiel, plutocrats, popular capitalism, profit maximization, public intellectual, rent control, rent-seeking, ride hailing / ride sharing, road to serfdom, Ronald Coase, Ronald Reagan, school choice, school vouchers, Shenzhen special economic zone , Silicon Valley, Skype, special economic zone, TED Talk, the long tail, three-martini lunch, too big to fail, total factor productivity, vertical integration, War on Poverty, Washington Consensus, Winter of Discontent, working-age population, zero-sum game

., p. 113. 11. Ibid., p. 34. 12. Ibid., p. 25. 13. “New Cradles to Graves,” The Economist, September 8, 2012. 14. “Asia’s Next Revolution,” ibid. 15. “Widefare,” The Economist, July 6, 2013. 16. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History,” National Interest, Summer 1989. 17. Joint news conference in Washington, D.C., October 29, 1997. 18. Fukuyama, “The End of History.” 19. Kurlantzik, Democracy in Retreat, p. 201. 20. Ibid., p. 7. 21. Bertelsmann Foundation, “All Over the World, the Quality of Democratic Governance Is Declining” (press release), November 29, 2009. 22.

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In South Korea, for instance, about 80 percent of what you get out of the system is tied to what you put in.15 In Asia as a whole, public-health spending is still only 2.5 percent of GDP, compared with about 7 percent in the OECD group of rich nations. The second reason is the crisis of the Western model of democracy and free-market capitalism. In the 1990s Lee’s lectures on Asian values seemed somewhat eccentric, even to Asians. The Washington consensus was sweeping all before it. Francis Fukuyama talked about “the total exhaustion of viable systematic alternatives to Western liberalism.”16 Rather than associating Deng Xiaoping’s China with economic greatness, Americans thought of the lone student walking toward the tanks in Tiananmen Square in 1989. Bill Clinton told China’s president, Jiang Zemin, to his face that he was “on the wrong side of ­history.”17 The Asian economic crisis in 1997 only reinforced the conceit of Western democracy, especially when the IMF had to launch a $40 billion program to help South Korea, Thailand, and Indonesia, which had all borrowed too much from foreign banks.

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Between January 2009 and November 2013, when the Democrats finally changed the filibuster procedure, seventy-nine of Barack Obama’s nominees were blocked, forcing the president to appoint people while the Senate was in recess (itself something of an abuse of power).6 Obama struggled to get Republican senators to let him appoint Chuck Hagel as his defense secretary, even though Hagel was both a decorated military veteran and a former Republican senator. Even allowing for the 2013 reform, the American political system continues to give extraordinary power to individual politicians to gum up the works. It remains what Francis Fukuyama has dubbed a “vetocracy.” Mill and Tocqueville would have been nervous about fiddling with the checks and balances that were designed to protect liberty. The other two structural problems, gerrymandering and money politics, even though they find some protection in the Constitution, seem far more alien to any idea of liberty.

The End of Power: From Boardrooms to Battlefields and Churches to States, Why Being in Charge Isn’t What It Used to Be by Moises Naim

"World Economic Forum" Davos, additive manufacturing, AOL-Time Warner, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, bilateral investment treaty, business cycle, business process, business process outsourcing, call centre, citizen journalism, Clayton Christensen, clean water, collapse of Lehman Brothers, collective bargaining, colonial rule, conceptual framework, corporate governance, creative destruction, crony capitalism, deskilling, disinformation, disintermediation, disruptive innovation, don't be evil, Evgeny Morozov, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial deregulation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, illegal immigration, immigration reform, income inequality, income per capita, intangible asset, intermodal, invisible hand, job-hopping, Joseph Schumpeter, Julian Assange, Kickstarter, Lewis Mumford, liberation theology, Martin Wolf, mega-rich, megacity, military-industrial complex, Naomi Klein, Nate Silver, new economy, Northern Rock, Occupy movement, open borders, open economy, Peace of Westphalia, plutocrats, price mechanism, price stability, private military company, profit maximization, prosperity theology / prosperity gospel / gospel of success, radical decentralization, Ronald Coase, Ronald Reagan, seminal paper, Silicon Valley, Skype, Steve Jobs, The Nature of the Firm, Thomas Malthus, too big to fail, trade route, transaction costs, Twitter Arab Spring, vertical integration, Washington Consensus, WikiLeaks, World Values Survey, zero-sum game

In 2004, Hezbollah flew a drone into Israeli air space; the Israeli military downed it, but the psychological effect of the violation, and the message it sent about Hezbollah’s capacities, endures.30 What happens when any disaffected, delusional, or deranged individual has the capacity to wreak havoc from the sky? As Stanford University’s Francis Fukuyama, who has been building his own drone to take better nature photos, has observed: “As the technology becomes cheaper and more commercially available, moreover, drones may become harder to trace; without knowing their provenance, deterrence breaks down. A world in which people can be routinely and anonymously targeted by unseen enemies is not pleasant to contemplate.”31 Drones are hyper-sophisticated compared with the most devastating weapon in military conflicts of the past few years—the improvised explosive device.

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Having a more diverse and inclusive group of actors at the table (the erstwhile “weak”) and reducing the number of decisions arbitrarily imposed on the world by a few powerful players are worth applauding, but the heightened difficulty of getting things done is not. POLITICAL PARALYSIS AS COLLATERAL DAMAGE OF THE DECAY OF POWER That paralysis has become acutely evident in the United States. As politics has become more polarized, the defects of a system overloaded with checks and balances have become more apparent. Francis Fukuyama calls this system a “vetocracy.” He writes: “Americans take great pride in a constitution that limits executive power through a series of checks and balances. But those checks have metastasized. And now America is a vetocracy. When this system is combined with ideologized parties, . . . the result is paralysis. . . .

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Not just in the corridors of presidential palaces, corporate headquarters, and university boardrooms but even more so in encounters around watercoolers in offices, in casual conversations among friends, and at the dinner table at home. These conversations are the indispensable ingredients of a political climate that is less welcoming to the terrible simplifiers. For as Francis Fukuyama correctly argues, to eradicate the vetocracy that is paralyzing the system, “political reform must first and foremost be driven by popular, grassroots mobilization.”5 This, in turn, requires focusing the conversation on how to contain the negative aspects of the decay of power and move us to the positive sloping side of the inverted U-curve.

How Democracy Ends by David Runciman

barriers to entry, basic income, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, bitcoin, blockchain, Brexit referendum, Cambridge Analytica, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, centre right, crowdsourcing, cuban missile crisis, disinformation, Dominic Cummings, Donald Trump, Dr. Strangelove, Edward Snowden, fake news, first-past-the-post, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Internet of things, Jeremy Corbyn, Jon Ronson, Joseph Schumpeter, Kickstarter, Large Hadron Collider, loss aversion, Mahatma Gandhi, Mark Zuckerberg, money: store of value / unit of account / medium of exchange, mutually assured destruction, Network effects, Nick Bostrom, Norman Mailer, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, Panopticon Jeremy Bentham, Paris climate accords, Peter Thiel, post-truth, power law, precautionary principle, quantitative easing, Russell Brand, self-driving car, Sheryl Sandberg, Silicon Valley, Steve Bannon, Steven Pinker, the long tail, The Wisdom of Crowds, Travis Kalanick, universal basic income, Yogi Berra

4Something better? CONCLUSION This is how democracy ends EPILOGUE 20 January 2053 FURTHER READING ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS NOTES INDEX PREFACE Thinking the unthinkable NOTHING LASTS FOREVER. At some point democracy was always going to pass into the pages of history. No one, not even Francis Fukuyama – who announced the end of history back in 1989 – has believed that its virtues make it immortal.1 But until very recently, most citizens of Western democracies would have imagined that the end was a long way off. They would not have expected it to happen in their lifetimes. Very few would have thought it might be taking place before their eyes.

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When another democracy starts to fall apart, we want to know if it’s a warning of our own possible fate. Democratic politics is hungry for morality tales, so long as it is someone else who is living them. In the late 1980s many Western commentators viewed Japan as the coming power: the twenty-first century would be the Japanese century. Francis Fukuyama cited Japan (along with the EU) as the likeliest illustration of what we could expect from the end of history: the triumph of democracy would turn out to be stable, prosperous, efficient and just a little bit boring. Then the Japanese bubble burst – along with the Japanese stock market – and the future belonged to someone else. Japan became instead a fable about the dangers of hubris.

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They identify trustworthy institutions as the key to political stability. This is a more accessible version of their classic earlier book, The Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005). The initial book has some equations in it; the later one doesn’t. Francis Fukuyama, still best known for The End of History and the Last Man (New York and London: Free Press, 1992), gives his own account of the rise and possible fall of democracy in The Origins of Political Order (New York: Farrer, Straus & Giroux; London: Profile, 2012) and Political Order and Political Decay (New York: Farrer, Straus & Giroux, 2014; London: Profile, 2015).

Broke: How to Survive the Middle Class Crisis by David Boyle

anti-communist, AOL-Time Warner, banking crisis, Berlin Wall, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Bonfire of the Vanities, bonus culture, call centre, collateralized debt obligation, corporate raider, Credit Default Swap, credit default swaps / collateralized debt obligations, deindustrialization, delayed gratification, Desert Island Discs, Eugene Fama: efficient market hypothesis, eurozone crisis, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial deregulation, financial independence, financial innovation, financial intermediation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frederick Winslow Taylor, gentrification, Goodhart's law, housing crisis, income inequality, Jane Jacobs, job satisfaction, John Bogle, junk bonds, Kickstarter, knowledge economy, knowledge worker, low interest rates, market fundamentalism, Martin Wolf, Mary Meeker, mega-rich, Money creation, mortgage debt, Neil Kinnock, Nelson Mandela, new economy, Nick Leeson, North Sea oil, Northern Rock, Ocado, Occupy movement, off grid, offshore financial centre, pension reform, pensions crisis, Plutonomy: Buying Luxury, Explaining Global Imbalances, Ponzi scheme, positional goods, precariat, quantitative easing, school choice, scientific management, Slavoj Žižek, social intelligence, subprime mortgage crisis, too big to fail, trickle-down economics, Vanguard fund, Walter Mischel, wealth creators, Winter of Discontent, work culture , working poor

It isn’t sudden middle-class impoverishment by unemployment that is really the most important story — though it happens in economic downturns of course — it is the slow impoverishment of middle-class professionals, the constriction of their room for manoeuvre, their status and then their salary too. The political thinker Francis Fukuyama caused a storm of intellectual excitement after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 by proclaiming ‘the End of History’. He became, rather reluctantly, part of the intellectual underpinnings of a new kind of deregulated ideal, the one that fell to pieces in the banking crash of 2008. These days, he finds himself in rather different company, and has recently begun a defence of the embattled American middle classes.[23] What he described as ‘happy talk about the wonders of the knowledge economy’, hailing a new economy based exclusively on service and finance, was actually a ‘gauzy veil placed over the hard facts of deindustrialization’.

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There certainly is a middle-class problem in the USA, where 4 million families are believed to be in danger of sliding into poverty and one in four middle-class households are about to drop down onto the lower rung, spending a quarter of their incomes just servicing debt.[22] It is different over there, but there are important parallels between the UK and USA, which is why the Labour leader Ed Miliband borrowed the American phrase ‘squeezed middle’ in 2011. The parallel has also been noticed by one of the most important commentators on world affairs. Francis Fukuyama is busily charting the decline of the middle classes in all developed nations. Into the misty past, the middle classes have benefited from rising above the undifferentiated masses, Fukuyama implies. Now they are being driven back into the undifferentiated mass by a new global elite which is benefiting from the shifts in the financial world over the past generation.

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This period has also coincided with an extraordinary and deeply unpleasant vilification of the working classes, tracked so compellingly by Owen Jones in his polemic Chavs, where mainstream culture and politics alike seem to have become suffused with an unpleasant contempt for anyone who wasn’t middle-class, as if the threat to middle-class values came from below and not from above. Websites like Chavscum were reported in the Daily Telegraph under the headline ‘In defence of snobbery’.[10] As Francis Fukuyama suggested (see previous chapter), the political risks from destroying the middle classes are terrifying. This ‘chavscum’ attitude has fed into the extremes of panic for many middle-class parents desperate to choose the right school for their children, and fearing that a feckless, alien culture would somehow steal their security and poison the minds of their families.

The Corona Crash: How the Pandemic Will Change Capitalism by Grace Blakeley

Anthropocene, asset-backed security, basic income, Big Tech, bond market vigilante , Bretton Woods, business cycle, capital controls, carbon tax, central bank independence, coronavirus, corporate governance, COVID-19, creative destruction, credit crunch, crony capitalism, debt deflation, decarbonisation, degrowth, deindustrialization, don't be evil, financial deregulation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, gig economy, global pandemic, global value chain, green new deal, Greenspan put, income inequality, informal economy, inverted yield curve, invisible hand, Jeff Bezos, liberal capitalism, light touch regulation, lockdown, low interest rates, Martin Wolf, Modern Monetary Theory, moral hazard, move fast and break things, Network effects, North Sea oil, Northern Rock, offshore financial centre, pensions crisis, Philip Mirowski, post-war consensus, price mechanism, quantitative easing, regulatory arbitrage, rent control, reshoring, Rishi Sunak, savings glut, secular stagnation, shareholder value, social distancing, structural adjustment programs, too big to fail, universal basic income, unorthodox policies, Washington Consensus, yield curve

, Guardian, 21 April 2020; Jonathan Tepper, ‘Federal Reserve Has Encouraged Moral Hazard on a Grand Scale’, Financial Times, 13 April 2020. 21 Robert Brenner, ‘Escalating Plunder’, New Left Review 123, May-June 2020, pp. 6-9. 22 Geoff Mann, In the Long Run We Are All Dead: Keynesianism, Political Economy, and Revolution London: Verso, 2017. 23 Ellen Meiksins Wood, Democracy Against Capitalism: Renewing Historical Materialism, London: Verso, 2016. 24 Gillian Tett, ‘Why the US Federal Reserve Turned Again to Blackrock for Help’, Financial Times, 26 March 2020; Michael Bird, ‘European Central Bank Hires Blackrock to Help with Loan Purchase Programme’, City A.M., 27 August 2014, cityam.com. 3 The New Imperialism 1 Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, National Interest, no. 16 (Summer 1989): 3–18, and The End of History and the Last Man, New York: Free Press, 1992; Thomas Friedman, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century, New York: Farrar, Strauss, and Giroux, 2005. 2 Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Vol. 1, trans. by Ben Fowkes, London: Penguin, 1990, p. 450. 3 There is a long-standing debate in Marxist literature about the class position of the manager: see Nicos Poulantzas, Classes in Contemporary Capitalism, London: Verso, 1975; John Ehrenreich and Barbara Ehrenreich, ‘The Professional-Managerial Class’, in Between Labour and Capital, ed.

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By the end of this crisis, a tiny oligarchy of politicians, central bankers, financiers and corporate executives will have further monopolised wealth and power in the global economy. The challenge for the Left will be to hold them to account. 3 The New Imperialism At the end of the 1980s, as the Iron Curtain fell and free market capitalism spread to most parts of the world, Francis Fukuyama declared the end of history. The evangelists of capital promised an era of opportunity and prosperity, including for poorer nations.1 The 2008 financial crisis shattered this illusion and brought history back with a bang. Resistance to globalisation, once confined to protest movements in the Global South and anarchists in the Global North, began to mount in the very states most integrated into the global economy.

The Ecotechnic Future: Envisioning a Post-Peak World by John Michael Greer

back-to-the-land, Black Swan, clean water, Community Supported Agriculture, David Strachan, deindustrialization, Easter island, European colonialism, Extropian, failed state, feminist movement, financial innovation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, George Santayana, hydrogen economy, hygiene hypothesis, illegal immigration, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invention of agriculture, Jevons paradox, Lewis Mumford, mass immigration, McMansion, oil shale / tar sands, peak oil, post-industrial society, Project for a New American Century, Ray Kurzweil, Stewart Brand, the scientific method, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, upwardly mobile, Whole Earth Catalog, Y2K

It’s ironic that one of the best places to begin that discussion is to glance at a recent announcement — ​one of many down through the years — ​that history itself had come to an end. P A R T III P ossi b i l ities The Ecotechnic Promise I 13 n retrospect, 1989 may not have been a good year to announce that history was over. That spring, however, a US State Department official named Francis Fukuyama did just that in an article titled “The End of History?” Later expanded into book form, ­Fukuyama’s claim got the fifteen minutes of fame Andy Warhol claimed everyone would receive in the future and sparked enough controversy in academic circles to justify a small bookshelf of discussions and rebuttals.1 Fukuyama’s announcement is easy to misunderstand and even easier to satirize.

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Political radicals at both ends of the spectrum pounced on Hegel’s ideas before the ink was dry on the first edition of his Philosophy of History. Karl Marx used Hegelian ideas as the foundation for his philosophy of class warfare and Communist revolution, while Giovanni Gentile, the pet philosopher of Mussolini’s Fascist regime in Italy, was also a strict Hegelian. For that matter, Francis Fukuyama, who played Gentile’s role for the neoconservative movement, drew his theory of an end to history straight from Hegel. Still, the spread of Hegel’s ideas isn’t limited to the radical fringes, or even to those who know who Hegel was. When peak oil comes up for discussion outside the activist community, one of the most 229 230 T he E cotechnic F u t u re common responses is,“Oh, they’ll think of something.”

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See Roger Penrose, The Emperor’s New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and the Laws of Physics, Oxford University Press, 1989, for a thoughtful discussion. 9. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press, 1962. 10. McClenon, Deviant Science. Chapter Thirteen: The Ecotechnic Promise 1. See, for example, Timothy Burns, ed., After History? Francis Fukuyama and his Critics, Rowman and Littlefield, 1994. 2. “We are history’s actors ...when we act, we create our own reality.” This embarrassing display of hubris by a Bush administration staffer is quoted in Ron Suskind, “Faith, certainty, and the presidency of George W. Bush,” New York Times Magazine (17 October 2004). 3.

This America: The Case for the Nation by Jill Lepore

Charles Lindbergh, colonial rule, desegregation, Donald Trump, fake news, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, immigration reform, liberal world order, mass immigration, Steve Bannon

By the last quarter of the twentieth century nationalism was, outside of postcolonial states, nearly dead, a stumbling, ghastly wraith. And many intellectuals believed that if they stopped writing national history, nationalism would die sooner, starved, neglected, deserted, a fitting death for a war criminal, destroyer of worlds. Francis Fukuyama’s much-read 1989 essay “The End of History?” appeared three years after Degler delivered his speech, but it remains the best-known illustration of the wisdom of Degler’s warning. At the end of the Cold War, Fukuyama announced that fascism and communism were dead and that nationalism, seemingly all but the last threat to liberalism left standing, was utterly decrepit in Europe (“European nationalism has been defanged”) and that, where it was still kicking in other parts of the world, well, that wasn’t quite nationalism: it was a halting striving for democracy.

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In 1986, when Degler rose from his chair to deliver his presidential address before the American Historical Association, hardly anyone in the academy was writing national history anymore, or making the case for the nation. Degler didn’t have much patience with this. Nor, I suspect, did he have much patience with Francis Fukuyama’s 1989 “The End of History?” Later, after the onset of civil war in Bosnia, the political theorist Michael Walzer grimly announced, “The tribes have returned.” They had never left. They’d only become harder for historians to see, because they weren’t really looking anymore. · XV · THE RETURN OF NATIONALISM To say that events did not bear out foretellings of the death of nationalism is to mute the screams of millions.

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Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2008. DuBois, W. E. B. Black Reconstruction in America. New York: Free Press, 1935. Epps, Garrett. Democracy Reborn: The Fourteenth Amendment and the Fight for Equal Rights in Post–Civil War America. New York: Henry Holt, 2006. Fukuyama, Francis. “The End of History?” The National Interest, Summer 1989. ______ . Identity: The Demand for Dignity and the Politics of Resentment. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2018. Gates, Henry, Jr. Stony the Road: Reconstruction, White Supremacy, and the Rise of Jim Crow. New York: Penguin, 2019. Gellner, Ernest. Nations and Nationalism. 2nd ed.

Shadows of Empire: The Anglosphere in British Politics by Michael Kenny, Nick Pearce

battle of ideas, Berlin Wall, Boris Johnson, Bretton Woods, Brexit referendum, British Empire, colonial rule, corporate governance, Dominic Cummings, Donald Trump, eurozone crisis, Fall of the Berlin Wall, floating exchange rates, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, global reserve currency, imperial preference, informal economy, invention of the telegraph, Khartoum Gordon, labour mobility, Les Trente Glorieuses, liberal capitalism, Mahatma Gandhi, mass immigration, Monroe Doctrine, Neal Stephenson, Nixon shock, public intellectual, quantitative easing, reserve currency, Ronald Reagan, Steve Bannon, Suez canal 1869, Suez crisis 1956, trade route, Washington Consensus

This sustained a ‘distinctive architecture of policy collaboration between these countries’, consisting of transgovernmental elite policy networks addressing common problems and devising shared solutions. Its depth and range suggests a ‘structural multilateral relationship in the Anglosphere, rather than simply bilateral or ad hoc arrangements.’8 From the ‘End of History’ to Iraq In the immediate years after the collapse of Soviet communism, when Francis Fukuyama's contention that liberal-democratic capitalism represented the ‘end of history’, the global dominance of this Anglo-American, liberal economic and political order appeared assured. A long boom, fuelled by global financialisation, was under way. China and India were becoming integrated into the global economy.

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Castles, ‘Australian antecedents of the Third Way’, Political Studies, 50 (2002), pp. 683–702. 7  Commission on Social Justice/Institute for Public Policy Research, Social Justice: Strategies for National Renewal (London: Vintage, 1994). 8  Tim Legrand, ‘Elite, exclusive and elusive: transgovernmental policy networks and iterative policy transfer in the Anglosphere’, Policy Studies, 37/5 (2016), pp. 440–55. 9  Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (London: Penguin, 1992), p. xxiii. 10  Samuel P. Huntington, ‘The West: unique, not universal’, Foreign Affairs, 75 (1996), pp. 28–46. 11  Rick Fawn, ‘Canada: outside the Anglo-American fold’, in Rick Fawn and Raymond Hinnebusch (eds), The Iraq War: Causes and Consequences (London: Lynne Rienner, 2006). 12  Walter Russell Mead, God and Gold: Britain, America, and the Making of the Modern World (New York: Vintage, 2007). 13  Ibid., p. 314. 14  Ibid., p. 95. 15  Perry Anderson, ‘American foreign policy and its thinkers’, New Left Review, no. 83 (2013) p. 122 [special issue]. 16  The UKIP Manifesto 2015, www.ukip.org/manifesto2015. 17  William Hague, ‘Britain and Australia: making the most of global opportunity’, John Howard Lecture, 17 January 2013, www.menziesrc.org/images/Latest_News/PDF/Britain_and_Australia__making_the_most_of_global_opportunity1.pdf. 18  Boris Johnson, ‘The Aussies are just like us, so let's stop kicking them out’, The Telegraph, 25 August 2013, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/10265619/The-Aussies-are-just-like-us-so-lets-stop-kicking-them-out.html. 19  Boris Johnson, Speech at Bloomberg in response to the receipt of Dr Gerard Lyons's publication of ‘The Europe report: a win–win situation’, 6 August 2014, www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/gla_migrate_files_destination/bj-europe-speech.pdf. 20  Tony Abbott, Address to Queen's College, Oxford University, 14 December 2012, www.australiantimes.co.uk/tony-abbott-address-to-queens-college-oxford-university/. 21  See, for example, Owen Paterson, ‘The Anglosphere, trade and international security’, speech to the Margaret Thatcher Center for Freedom, the Heritage Foundation, Washington, DC, 25 March 2015, www.uk2020.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/The-Anglosphere-Trade-and-International-Security-UK-2020-25.03.2015-FINAL.pdf. 22  Shashi Parulekar and Joel Kotkin, ‘The state of the Anglosphere’, City Journal (winter 2012), www.city-journal.org/html/state-anglosphere-13447.html. 23  Daniel Hannan, Why America Must Not Follow Europe (New York: Encounter Books, 2011). 7 Brexit: The Anglosphere Triumphant?

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The full story of the emergence of this New Right Anglosphere is yet to be told, primarily because the identity of its main donors and the nature of the relationships between its key figures remain rather opaque.29 Two conferences, organised by the Hudson Institute in 1999 and 2000 in Washington, DC, and Berkshire, brought together what one journalistic observer called ‘the intellectual heart of British-American conservatism’.30 Among the delegates were Thatcher and David Davis MP (later the government minister tasked with negotiating the UK's departure from the EU), leading intellectual conservatives, including Francis Fukuyama, Robert Conquest and Kenneth Minogue, prominent commentators such as James C. Bennett, John O'Sullivan and Owen Harries, the media mogul Conrad Black, and John Hulsman from the Heritage Foundation. Very few American politicians identified with this cause in these years, with the notable exception of the leading Republican Pat Buchanan.

The Future of War by Lawrence Freedman

Albert Einstein, autonomous vehicles, Berlin Wall, Black Swan, Boeing 747, British Empire, colonial rule, conceptual framework, crowdsourcing, cuban missile crisis, currency manipulation / currency intervention, disinformation, Donald Trump, Dr. Strangelove, driverless car, drone strike, en.wikipedia.org, energy security, Ernest Rutherford, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global village, Google Glasses, Herman Kahn, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), John Markoff, long peace, megacity, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, moral hazard, mutually assured destruction, New Journalism, Norbert Wiener, nuclear taboo, open economy, pattern recognition, Peace of Westphalia, RAND corporation, Ronald Reagan, South China Sea, speech recognition, Steven Pinker, Strategic Defense Initiative, Stuxnet, Suez canal 1869, Suez crisis 1956, systematic bias, the scientific method, uranium enrichment, urban sprawl, Valery Gerasimov, Wargames Reagan, WarGames: Global Thermonuclear War, WikiLeaks, zero day

Available: http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21693279-how-many-people-has-syrias-civil-war-killed-quantifying-carnage CHAPTER 12 1. Immanuel Kant, Political Writings, (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991), 100. 2. Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History’, The National Interest (1989). The original essay was developed into a book: Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 3. Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991). A key factor according to Huntington was not only the active promotion of democracy by the US and the snowball effect within regions but also the growing opposition of the Catholic Church to authoritarian rule. 4.

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But the spread of democracy was bound to be contentious and would be resisted by autocrats. As European communism imploded Francis Fukuyama of the RAND Corporation announced that this was not just ‘the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of post-war history’, but ‘the end of history as such’. By this he meant ‘the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.’2 Talking of the ‘end of history’ invited misinterpretation. He was not suggesting that there would be no more conflict, or other transformational events, only that there was now no serious ideological alternative to the political and economic model that had been embraced by the Western world, to their enormous benefit.

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[ 23 ] Mega-Cities and Climate Change In our world there are still people who run around risking their lives in bloody battles over a name or a flag or a piece of clothing but they tend to belong to gangs with names like the Bloods and the Crips and they make their living dealing drugs. FRANCIS FUKUYAMA, The End of History, 19921 As Fukuyama looked with optimism at the West’s liberal triumph in the early 1990s, there was also anxiety about whether a lack of anything serious to fight about would lead it into a soft decadence. The Bloods and the Crips were two famous Los Angeles street gangs. The Bloods were formed at first to resist the influence of the Crips in their neighbourhoods.

The Dying Citizen: How Progressive Elites, Tribalism, and Globalization Are Destroying the Idea of America by Victor Davis Hanson

"World Economic Forum" Davos, 2021 United States Capitol attack, 23andMe, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, airport security, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, Black Lives Matter, Boeing 737 MAX, borderless world, bread and circuses, British Empire, business climate, business cycle, carbon footprint, centre right, clean water, coronavirus, COVID-19, creative destruction, currency manipulation / currency intervention, defund the police, deindustrialization, deplatforming, disinformation, Donald Trump, Dr. Strangelove, drone strike, El Camino Real, fake news, Ferguson, Missouri, fixed income, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, George Floyd, Gini coefficient, global pandemic, Herbert Marcuse, high-speed rail, Honoré de Balzac, illegal immigration, immigration reform, income inequality, Jeff Bezos, Joseph Schumpeter, laissez-faire capitalism, lockdown, Mark Zuckerberg, mass immigration, mass incarceration, Menlo Park, microaggression, military-industrial complex, mortgage debt, Nate Silver, new economy, New Urbanism, obamacare, old-boy network, Paris climate accords, Parler "social media", peak oil, Potemkin village, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Robert Mercer, Ronald Reagan, school choice, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley billionaire, Skype, social distancing, Social Justice Warrior, tech worker, Thomas L Friedman, transcontinental railway, upwardly mobile, vertical integration, WikiLeaks, working poor, Yom Kippur War, zero-sum game

“It’s a black thing”: “Mistaken for a Black Thing, Few Strive to Understand It,” Seattle Times, July 4, 2007, www.seattletimes.com/opinion/mistaken-for-a-black-thing-few-strive-to-understand-it; Klan: Sarah Churchwell, “America’s Original Identity Politics,” New York Review of Books, February 7, 2019, www.nybooks.com/daily/2019/02/07/americas-original-identity-politics; Fukuyama: Francis Fukuyama, “Francis Fukuyama—Against Identity Politics,” University of Pennsylvania, www.sas.upenn.edu/andrea-mitchell-center/francis-fukuyama-against-identity-politics. 24. On later embarrassments of Chicano racialist movements: Tim Rutten, “An Identity Issue for Bustamente,” Los Angeles Times, September 6, 2003, www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-sep-06-et-rutten6-story.html; Matea Gold, “Chicano Student Group Defended,” Los Angeles Times, August 30, 2003, www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-aug-30-me-mecha30-story.html.

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The civil rights movement finally killed off the dangerous vestiges of the Ku Klux Klan. Yet the latter’s few incoherent remnants are starting to recombobulate in the era of diversity to supposedly preserve their “white” identity by professing a right to emulate the tribal chauvinism of other racial groups. In a series of essays and books, Francis Fukuyama has warned of such unintended consequences of identity politics when all are redefining themselves according to appearance: Perhaps the worst thing about identity politics as currently practiced by the left is that it has stimulated the rise of identity politics on the right. This is due in no small part to the left’s embrace of political correctness, a social norm that prohibits people from publicly expressing their beliefs or opinions without fearing moral opprobrium.

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Vaquera, “The Immigration Enforcement Regime, and the Implications for Racial Inequality in the Lives of Undocumented Young Adults,” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 1 (2015): 88–104. 23. A discussion of why Latin America did not “catch up” economically with Canada and the United States is found in Francis Fukuyama, ed., Falling Behind: Explaining the Development Gap Between Latin America and the United States (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 72–98. For Mexico’s use of its expatriate community to interfere in the domestic politics of the United States, see Mark Krikorian, The New Case Against Immigration: Both Legal and Illegal (New York: Sentinel, 2008), 71–85. 24.

The End of the Free Market: Who Wins the War Between States and Corporations? by Ian Bremmer

"World Economic Forum" Davos, affirmative action, Asian financial crisis, banking crisis, Berlin Wall, BRICs, British Empire, centre right, collective bargaining, corporate governance, creative destruction, credit crunch, Credit Default Swap, cuban missile crisis, Deng Xiaoping, diversified portfolio, Doha Development Round, Exxon Valdez, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Glass-Steagall Act, global reserve currency, global supply chain, household responsibility system, invisible hand, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kickstarter, laissez-faire capitalism, low skilled workers, mass immigration, means of production, megacity, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, mutually assured destruction, Naomi Klein, Nelson Mandela, new economy, offshore financial centre, open economy, race to the bottom, reserve currency, risk tolerance, Savings and loan crisis, shareholder value, Shenzhen special economic zone , South Sea Bubble, sovereign wealth fund, special economic zone, spice trade, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, too big to fail, trade liberalization, trade route, tulip mania, uranium enrichment, Washington Consensus, Yom Kippur War, zero-sum game

Chapter six details what those who believe in free-market capitalism can do about it. CHAPTER ONE The Rise of a New System What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of post-war history, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government. —FRANCIS FUKUYAMA , “The End of History”1 In championing globalization as the defining force in international politics and the global economy, we’ve spent the past several years writing obituaries for communism, for dictatorship, and even for the nation-state.

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Finally, much love to Ann Shuman, who generally puts up with my insufferable nature. And to my favorite brother, Robert Coolbrith. They’re both brilliant, adorable, and would be in more paragraphs if good taste didn’t dictate otherwise. NOTES CHAPTER ONE : The Rise of a New System 1 Francis Fukuyama’s essay “The End of History” appeared in the National Interest, Summer 1989, and was expanded into the book The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 2 According to the Economist Intelligence Unit’s 2008 Democracy Index, “Democracy can be seen as a set of practices and principles that institutionalize and thus ultimately protect freedom.

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If the turmoil that these crises generated couldn’t breathe life into the communist corpse, it’s hard to imagine what could. Communism is dead, and there will be no resurrection. Yet no one can credibly say the same for dictatorship. In 1989, as Eastern Europe’s communist states fell like dominoes and millions of Chinese students mounted a bold challenge to their government, writer Francis Fukuyama penned a provocative essay to support a surprising claim: that “history” had come to an end. He argued that though forms of government would continue to vary from place to place and that some countries had considerable catching up to do, mankind was moving toward consensus on the virtues of liberal democracy.

Utopia for Realists: The Case for a Universal Basic Income, Open Borders, and a 15-Hour Workweek by Rutger Bregman

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Alan Greenspan, autonomous vehicles, banking crisis, Bartolomé de las Casas, basic income, Berlin Wall, Bertrand Russell: In Praise of Idleness, Branko Milanovic, cognitive dissonance, computer age, conceptual framework, credit crunch, David Graeber, Diane Coyle, driverless car, Erik Brynjolfsson, everywhere but in the productivity statistics, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Ford Model T, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frank Levy and Richard Murnane: The New Division of Labor, full employment, George Gilder, George Santayana, happiness index / gross national happiness, Henry Ford's grandson gave labor union leader Walter Reuther a tour of the company’s new, automated factory…, income inequality, invention of gunpowder, James Watt: steam engine, John Markoff, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John Maynard Keynes: technological unemployment, Kevin Kelly, Kickstarter, knowledge economy, knowledge worker, Kodak vs Instagram, low skilled workers, means of production, megacity, meta-analysis, microcredit, minimum wage unemployment, Mont Pelerin Society, Nathan Meyer Rothschild: antibiotics, Occupy movement, offshore financial centre, Paul Samuelson, Peter Thiel, post-industrial society, precariat, public intellectual, radical decentralization, RAND corporation, randomized controlled trial, Ray Kurzweil, Ronald Reagan, Rutger Bregman, Second Machine Age, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, Skype, stem cell, Steven Pinker, TED Talk, telemarketer, The future is already here, The Future of Employment, The Spirit Level, The Theory of the Leisure Class by Thorstein Veblen, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, Thorstein Veblen, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, universal basic income, wage slave, War on Poverty, We wanted flying cars, instead we got 140 characters, wikimedia commons, women in the workforce, working poor, World Values Survey

Orazem, “Challenge Paper: Education,” Copenhagen Consensus Center (April 2014). http://copenhagenconsensus.com/publication/education 17. “Where have all the burglars gone?” The Economist (July 18, 2013). http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21582041-rich-world-seeing-less-and-less-crime-even-face-high-unemployment-and-economic 18. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” The National Interest (Summer 1989). http://ps321.community.uaf.edu/files/2012/10/Fukuyama-End-of-history-article.pdf 19. Andrew Cohut et al., Economies of Emerging Markets Better Rated During Difficult Times. Global Downturn Takes Heavy Toll; Inequality Seen as Rising, Pew Research (May 23, 2013), p. 23. http://www.pewglobal.org/files/2013/05/Pew-Global-Attitudes-Economic-Report-FINAL-May-23-20131.pdf 20.

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Hayek, “The Intellectuals and Socialism,” The University of Chicago Law Review (Spring 1949). https://mises.org/etexts/hayekintellectuals.pdf 16. Quoted in: Angus Burgin, The Great Persuasion. Reinventing Free Markets since the Depression (2012). p. 13. 17. Quoted in: Burgin, The Great Persuasion, p. 169. 18. Ibid, p. 11. 19. Ibid, p. 221. 20. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (1992). 21. At the end of his life, Friedman said there was only one philosopher he had ever really studied in depth: the Austrian Karl Popper. Popper argued that good science revolves around “falsifiability,” requiring a continual search for things that don’t fit your theory instead of only seeking confirmation.

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“There are still criminals, but there are ever fewer of them and they are getting older.”17 War has been on the decline Source: Peace Research Institute Oslo A Bleak Paradise Welcome, in other words, to the Land of Plenty. To the good life. To Cockaigne, where almost everyone is rich, safe, and healthy. Where there’s only one thing we lack: a reason to get out of bed in the morning. Because after all, you can’t really improve on paradise. Back in 1989, the American philosopher Francis Fukuyama already noted that we had arrived in an era where life has been reduced to “economic calculation, the endless solving of technical problems, environmental concerns, and the satisfaction of sophisticated consumer demands.”18 Notching up our purchasing power another percentage point, or shaving a couple off our carbon emissions; perhaps a new gadget – that’s about the extent of our vision.

Social Capital and Civil Society by Francis Fukuyama

Berlin Wall, blue-collar work, Fairchild Semiconductor, Fall of the Berlin Wall, feminist movement, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, George Akerlof, German hyperinflation, Jane Jacobs, Joseph Schumpeter, Kevin Kelly, labor-force participation, low skilled workers, p-value, Pareto efficiency, postindustrial economy, principal–agent problem, RAND corporation, scientific management, Silicon Valley, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, the strength of weak ties, transaction costs, vertical integration, World Values Survey

Social Capital FRANCIS FUKUYAMA THE TANNER LECTURES ON HUMAN VALUES Delivered at Brasenose College, Oxford May 12, 14, and 15, 1997 FRANCIS FUKUYAMA is Omer L. and Nancy Hirst Professor of Public Policy at the Institute of Public Policy at George Mason University and director of the Institute’s International Transactions Program. Educated at Cornell, he received his Ph.D. from Harvard University. He has been a member of the Political Science Department of the RAND Corporation, where he is currently a consultant, as well as a member of the Policy Planning Staff of the U.S. Department of State.

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He is a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies and the Council on Foreign Relations; the editor, with Andrez Korbonski, of T h e Soviet Union and the Third W o r l d : T h e Last Three Decades (1987) ; and book review editor at Foreign A f a i r s . His publications include T h e End of History and the Last M a n ( 1 9 9 2 ), which received the Premio Capri and the Book Critics Award (from the Los Angeles T i m e s ) , and Trust : T h e Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity (1995), which was named “business book of the year” by European. LECTURE I. THE GREAT DISRUPTION Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, there has been an extraordinary amount of attention paid to the interrelated issues of social capital, civil society, trust, and social norms as central issues for contemporary democracies.

Fully Automated Luxury Communism by Aaron Bastani

"Peter Beck" AND "Rocket Lab", Alan Greenspan, Anthropocene, autonomous vehicles, banking crisis, basic income, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Boston Dynamics, Bretton Woods, Brexit referendum, capital controls, capitalist realism, cashless society, central bank independence, collapse of Lehman Brothers, computer age, computer vision, CRISPR, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, decarbonisation, deep learning, dematerialisation, DIY culture, Donald Trump, double helix, driverless car, electricity market, Elon Musk, energy transition, Erik Brynjolfsson, fake news, financial independence, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, Future Shock, G4S, general purpose technology, Geoffrey Hinton, Gregor Mendel, housing crisis, income inequality, industrial robot, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Internet of things, Isaac Newton, James Watt: steam engine, Jeff Bezos, Jeremy Corbyn, Jevons paradox, job automation, John Markoff, John Maynard Keynes: technological unemployment, Joseph Schumpeter, Kevin Kelly, Kuiper Belt, land reform, Leo Hollis, liberal capitalism, low earth orbit, low interest rates, low skilled workers, M-Pesa, market fundamentalism, means of production, mobile money, more computing power than Apollo, new economy, off grid, pattern recognition, Peter H. Diamandis: Planetary Resources, post scarcity, post-work, price mechanism, price stability, private spaceflight, Productivity paradox, profit motive, race to the bottom, rewilding, RFID, rising living standards, Robert Solow, scientific management, Second Machine Age, self-driving car, sensor fusion, shareholder value, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, Slavoj Žižek, SoftBank, stem cell, Stewart Brand, synthetic biology, technological determinism, technoutopianism, the built environment, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, transatlantic slave trade, Travis Kalanick, universal basic income, V2 rocket, Watson beat the top human players on Jeopardy!, We are as Gods, Whole Earth Catalog, working-age population

Ernest Hemingway, The Sun Also Rises In the summer of 1989, as it became clear the United States and its allies had won the Cold War, Francis Fukuyama wrote an essay titled ‘The End of History?’ for the National Interest. Its core proposition was provocative yet simple, with the little-known academic asserting that the collapse of the Soviet Union was of greater importance than simply marking the end of a military rivalry: ‘What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of postwar history, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.’

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‘Wisconsin Board Clears Way For $3 Billion Foxconn Deal’. Reuters, 8 November 2017. Part I. Chaos under Heaven 1. The Great Divide Fukuyama, Francis. ‘The End of History’. National Interest, 16 Summer 1989. Capitalist Realism Cox, Christoph, Molly Whalen and Alain Badiou. ‘On Evil: An Interview with Alain Badiou’. Cabinet, Winter 2001-2. Fisher, Mark. Capitalist Realism: Is There No Alternative? Zero Books, 2010. Menand, Louis. ‘Francis Fukuyama Postpones the End of History’. New Yorker, 3 September 2018. Crisis Unleashed ‘Depression Looms as Global Crisis’. BBC News, 2 September 2009. Hertle, Hans-Hermann and Maria Nooke.

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The claim that capitalism will end, is, for capitalist realism, like saying a triangle doesn’t have three sides or that the law of gravity no longer applies while an apple falls from a tree. Rather than understanding the present as one historical period among many, like Victorian England or the Roman Republic, to be alive at the end of history means presuming our social systems to be as unchanging as the physical laws that govern the universe. And yet the truth is capitalist realism is already coming apart. The fact you are reading these words at all is proof. Despite the observations of Francis Fukuyama and his disciples, history returned on 15 September 2008 when the global financial system crashed. Within weeks the world’s leading economic powers, previous zealots for minimal state interference, were left with no alternative but to bail out their domestic banks, with some even being nationalised.

Framers: Human Advantage in an Age of Technology and Turmoil by Kenneth Cukier, Viktor Mayer-Schönberger, Francis de Véricourt

Albert Einstein, Andrew Wiles, Apollo 11, autonomous vehicles, Ben Bernanke: helicopter money, Berlin Wall, bitcoin, Black Lives Matter, blockchain, Blue Ocean Strategy, circular economy, Claude Shannon: information theory, cognitive dissonance, cognitive load, contact tracing, coronavirus, correlation does not imply causation, COVID-19, credit crunch, CRISPR, crowdsourcing, cuban missile crisis, Daniel Kahneman / Amos Tversky, deep learning, DeepMind, defund the police, Demis Hassabis, discovery of DNA, Donald Trump, double helix, Douglas Hofstadter, Elon Musk, en.wikipedia.org, fake news, fiat currency, framing effect, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frank Gehry, game design, George Floyd, George Gilder, global pandemic, global village, Gödel, Escher, Bach, Higgs boson, Ignaz Semmelweis: hand washing, informal economy, Isaac Newton, Jaron Lanier, Jeff Bezos, job-hopping, knowledge economy, Large Hadron Collider, lockdown, Louis Pasteur, Mark Zuckerberg, Mercator projection, meta-analysis, microaggression, Mustafa Suleyman, Neil Armstrong, nudge unit, OpenAI, packet switching, pattern recognition, Peter Thiel, public intellectual, quantitative easing, Ray Kurzweil, Richard Florida, Schrödinger's Cat, scientific management, self-driving car, Silicon Valley, Steve Jobs, Steven Pinker, TED Talk, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, TikTok, Tim Cook: Apple, too big to fail, transaction costs, Tyler Cowen

Whether it is a high-tech arms race or a hotter climate or a growing underclass around the world, we need to get better at framing to respond. Bookshelves sag with tomes extolling the virtues of human progress. But the affluent, immortal brainiac who is predicted in the book Homo Deus by Yuval Noah Harari will in time be as ridiculed as the rich, safe, and happy “last man” in Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History. A more clear-eyed and responsible look at the world suggests that things aren’t getting easier but harder. The toughest challenges facing humanity are not behind us but ahead of us. In the past most of our challenges were a matter of survival for individuals or communities, but not the entire planet.

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The end of the Cold War and the fall of communism in the early 1990s only deepened the conviction among many in the West that not only Western values but also Western frames, their very mental models of the world, were superior to others. The American political scientist Francis Fukuyama famously gave voice to this belief in 1992, that human civilization had reached the “end of history” because the idea of liberal, market democracy—the dominant frame left standing after the Soviet Union collapsed—seemed to mark an end point in political thinking. The “liberal market democracy” frame, exemplified by the United States, faced no credible or coherent alternative for how to govern.

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Our World in Data: Information about the project and its financial supporters is at “Our Supporters,” Our World in Data, accessed November 2, 2020, https://ourworldindata.org/funding. On Harari: Yuval N. Harari, Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow (London: Harvill Secker, 2016). On Fukuyama: Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 2. framing Story of Alyssa Milano and the origin of MeToo: The information was compiled from an interview with Alyssa Milano by Kenneth Cukier in August 2020, as well as from the articles that follow: Useful references include: Jessica Bennett, “Alyssa Milano, Celebrity Activist for the Celebrity Presidential Age,” New York Times, October 25, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/25/us/politics/alyssa-milano-activism.html; Anna Codrea-Rado, “#MeToo Floods Social Media with Stories of Harassment and Assault,” New York Times, October 16, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/16/technology/metoo-twitter-facebook.html; Jim Rutenberg et al., “Harvey Weinstein’s Fall Opens the Floodgates in Hollywood,” New York Times, October 16, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/16/business/media/harvey-weinsteins-fall-opens-the-floodgates-in-hollywood.html.

The People vs. Democracy: Why Our Freedom Is in Danger and How to Save It by Yascha Mounk

Abraham Maslow, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, An Inconvenient Truth, Andrew Keen, basic income, battle of ideas, Black Lives Matter, Boris Johnson, Branko Milanovic, Bretton Woods, business cycle, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carried interest, Cass Sunstein, central bank independence, centre right, classic study, clean water, cognitive bias, conceptual framework, critical race theory, David Brooks, deindustrialization, demographic transition, desegregation, disinformation, Donald Trump, en.wikipedia.org, Evgeny Morozov, fake news, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, gentrification, German hyperinflation, gig economy, Gini coefficient, Herbert Marcuse, Home mortgage interest deduction, housing crisis, income inequality, invention of the printing press, invention of the steam engine, investor state dispute settlement, Jeremy Corbyn, job automation, Joseph Schumpeter, land value tax, low skilled workers, Lyft, manufacturing employment, Mark Zuckerberg, mass immigration, microaggression, mortgage tax deduction, Naomi Klein, new economy, offshore financial centre, open borders, Parag Khanna, plutocrats, post-materialism, price stability, ride hailing / ride sharing, rising living standards, Ronald Reagan, Rosa Parks, Rutger Bregman, secular stagnation, sharing economy, Steve Bannon, Thomas L Friedman, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, universal basic income, upwardly mobile, World Values Survey, zero-sum game

Margaret Talev and Sahil Kapur, “Trump Vows Election-Day Suspense without Seeking Voters He Needs to Win,” Bloomberg, 20 October, 2016, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-10-20/trump-vows-election-day-suspense-without-seeking-voters-he-needs-to-win; Associated Press, “Trump to Clinton: ‘You’d Be in Jail’” New York Times website, video, October 10, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/video/us/politics/100000004701741/trump-to-clinton-youd-be-in-jail.html; Yochi Dreazen, “Trump’s Love for Brutal Leaders Like the Philippines’ Rodrigo Duterte, Explained,” Vox, May 1, 2017, https://www.vox.com/world/2017/5/1/15502610/trump-philippines-rodrigo-duterte-obama-putin-erdogan-dictators. 2. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” National Interest, no. 16 (Summer 1989): 3–18, quotation on p. 4; Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 3. For a variety of early responses to Fukuyama, see for example essays by Harvey Mansfield, E. O. Wilson, Gertrude Himmelfarb, Robin Fox, Robert J. Samuelson, and Joseph S. Nye, “Responses to Fukuyama,” National Interest, no. 56 (Summer 1989): 34–44. 4.

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Source: US Census Bureau, “Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-Born Population of the United States: 1850–2000,” https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0081/twps0081.html; and Pew Research Center tabulations of 2010 and 2015 American Community Survey (IPUMS) in Gustavo López and Kristen Bialik: “Key Findings about U.S. Immigrants,” Pew Research Center, Washington, DC, May, 3, 2017, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/05/03/key-findings-about-u-s-immigrants/. Acknowledgments At the end of “The End of History?,” Francis Fukuyama revealed that he had some doubts about whether history would really end: The end of history will be a very sad time. The struggle for recognition, the willingness to risk one’s life for a purely abstract goal, the worldwide ideological struggle that called forth daring, courage, imagination, and idealism, will be replaced by economic calculation, the endless solving of technical problems, environmental concerns, and the satisfaction of sophisticated consumer demands.

…

The future, it seemed, belonged to liberal democracy. The idea that democracy was sure to triumph has come to be associated with the work of Francis Fukuyama. In a sensational essay published in the late 1980s, Fukuyama argued that the conclusion of the Cold War would lead to “the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.” Democracy’s triumph, he proclaimed in a phrase that has come to encapsulate the heady optimism of 1989, would mark “The End of History.”2 Plenty of critics took Fukuyama to task for his supposed naiveté. Some argued that the spread of liberal democracy was far from inevitable, fearing (or hoping) that many countries would prove resistant to this Western import.

State-Building: Governance and World Order in the 21st Century by Francis Fukuyama

Asian financial crisis, behavioural economics, Berlin Wall, Bretton Woods, centre right, corporate governance, demand response, Doha Development Round, European colonialism, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, George Akerlof, Hernando de Soto, information asymmetry, liberal world order, Live Aid, Nick Leeson, Pareto efficiency, Potemkin village, precautionary principle, price stability, principal–agent problem, rent-seeking, road to serfdom, Ronald Coase, structural adjustment programs, Suez crisis 1956, tacit knowledge, technology bubble, The Market for Lemons, The Nature of the Firm, transaction costs, vertical integration, Washington Consensus, Westphalian system

state-building state-building governance and world order in the 21st century f r a n c i s f u k u ya m a cornell univer sit y press I t h a c a , N e w Yo r k Copyright © 2004 by Francis Fukuyama All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850. First published 2004 by Cornell University Press Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fukuyama, Francis. State-building : governance and world order in the 21st century / Francis Fukuyama. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index.

…

It was only as a result of actions by states that were willing to decisively use traditional forms of military power— the Croatians in the case of Bosnia and the Americans in the case of Kosovo—that Serbian domination was ended and the Balkans pacified. Robert Kagan put the matter in the following manner. The Europeans are the ones who actually believe they are living at the end of history–that is, in a largely peaceful world that to an weak states and international legitimacy 117 increasing degree can be governed by law, norms, and international agreements. In this world, power politics and classical realpolitik have become obsolete. Americans, by contrast, think they are still living in history, and need to use traditional power-political means to deal with threats from Iraq, al-Qaida, North Korea, and other malignant forces.

The Billionaire Raj: A Journey Through India's New Gilded Age by James Crabtree

"World Economic Forum" Davos, accounting loophole / creative accounting, Asian financial crisis, behavioural economics, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Branko Milanovic, business climate, call centre, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, centre right, colonial rule, commodity super cycle, Cornelius Vanderbilt, corporate raider, creative destruction, crony capitalism, Daniel Kahneman / Amos Tversky, Deng Xiaoping, Donald Trump, facts on the ground, failed state, fake news, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global supply chain, Gunnar Myrdal, income inequality, informal economy, Joseph Schumpeter, land bank, liberal capitalism, Mahatma Gandhi, McMansion, megacity, Meghnad Desai, middle-income trap, New Urbanism, offshore financial centre, open economy, Parag Khanna, Pearl River Delta, plutocrats, Ponzi scheme, post-truth, public intellectual, quantitative easing, rent-seeking, Rubik’s Cube, Shenzhen special economic zone , Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, smart cities, special economic zone, spectrum auction, tech billionaire, The Great Moderation, Thomas L Friedman, transaction costs, trickle-down economics, vertical integration, Washington Consensus, WikiLeaks, yellow journalism, young professional

In the three decades since Rajiv Gandhi last won a victory on a similar scale, both the Congress and the BJP had been weakened by regional and caste-based political rivals, and fragile governing coalitions had become the norm in New Delhi. But now Modi had crafted a new and popular nationalism, which drew strength from the decline of the older identity the Congress represented. Modi’s career had barely begun in 1989, the year when Francis Fukuyama wrote “The End of History,” his essay in the National Interest predicting the triumph of Western-style free-market democracy. “It is not necessary that all societies become successful liberal societies, merely that they end their ideological pretensions of representing different and higher forms of human society,” Fukuyama argued.39 Already a democracy, post-socialist India should have provided a neat test case for the brand of this free-market democratic shift.

…

This in turn should form part of a broader set of changes that are described in India as a transition from a “deals-based” to a “rules-based” model of capitalism, meaning one whose rules allow little political and bureaucratic discretion over public resources.13 Yet even this will be far from straightforward. Francis Fukuyama describes this shift away from a “patrimonial” state, meaning one marked by corruption and clientelism, as the defining challenge for all developing nations. “[It is] much more difficult,” he writes, “than making the transition from an authoritarian political system to a democratic one.”14 This balance of growth and corruption then lies at the heart of the struggles of India’s industrial economy.

…

Rajesh Kumar Singh and Devidutta Tripathy, “India Moves Resolution of $150 Billion Bad Debt Problem into RBI’s Court,” Reuters, May 6, 2017. 24. Hofstadter, The Age of Reform, p. 11. 25. T. N. Ninan, “India’s Gilded Age,” Seminar, January 2013. 26. Twain and Warner, The Gilded Age. 27. Francis Fukuyama, “What Is Corruption?” Research Institute for Development, Growth and Economics, 2016. 28. Jayant Sinha and Ashutosh Varshney, “It Is Time for India to Rein In Its Robber Barons,” Financial Times, January 7, 2011. 29. Data compiled by Gapminder.org, which takes India’s 2013 GDP per capita data from a cross-country comparison based on 2005 dollars.

Grave New World: The End of Globalization, the Return of History by Stephen D. King

"World Economic Forum" Davos, 9 dash line, Admiral Zheng, air freight, Alan Greenspan, Albert Einstein, Asian financial crisis, bank run, banking crisis, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, bilateral investment treaty, bitcoin, blockchain, Bonfire of the Vanities, borderless world, Bretton Woods, Brexit referendum, British Empire, business cycle, capital controls, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, central bank independence, collateralized debt obligation, colonial rule, corporate governance, credit crunch, currency manipulation / currency intervention, currency peg, currency risk, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, debt deflation, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, Doha Development Round, Donald Trump, Edward Snowden, eurozone crisis, facts on the ground, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, falling living standards, floating exchange rates, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, George Akerlof, global supply chain, global value chain, Global Witness, Great Leap Forward, hydraulic fracturing, Hyman Minsky, imperial preference, income inequality, income per capita, incomplete markets, inflation targeting, information asymmetry, Internet of things, invisible hand, Jeremy Corbyn, joint-stock company, Kickstarter, Long Term Capital Management, low interest rates, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, Mexican peso crisis / tequila crisis, middle-income trap, moral hazard, Nixon shock, offshore financial centre, oil shock, old age dependency ratio, paradox of thrift, Peace of Westphalia, plutocrats, post-truth, price stability, profit maximization, quantitative easing, race to the bottom, rent-seeking, reserve currency, reshoring, rising living standards, Ronald Reagan, Savings and loan crisis, Scramble for Africa, Second Machine Age, Skype, South China Sea, special drawing rights, technology bubble, The Great Moderation, The Market for Lemons, the market place, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, trade liberalization, trade route, Washington Consensus, WikiLeaks, Yom Kippur War, zero-sum game

In an earlier, supposedly more peaceful era, Norman Angell’s supporters hoped that common sense would prevail, that war would be futile because it would be mutually destructive. Economic interdependency was so great that only a madman would go to war. Having suffered brain damage at birth, Kaiser Wilhelm II unfortunately went on to prove the point.18 Francis Fukuyama admitted in 1992 that he could not guarantee the end of history. For him, the biggest objection came from Nietzsche, ‘who believed that modern democracy represented not the self-mastery of former slaves, but the unconditional victory of the slave and a kind of slavish morality … The last man had no desire to be recognized as greater than others, and without such desire no excellence or achievement was possible.’19 Yet, as Soviet communism collapsed, Fukuyama’s disciples were convinced that Western liberal democracy – and Western free-market capitalism – had triumphed.

…

(i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Byzantium (i) Cabinet (UK) (i) California (i), (ii) caliphates (i), (ii), (iii) Callaghan, Jim (i), (ii) Cameron, David (i) Canada a reputable country (i) Asian Development Bank and (i) closes gap on US (i) Irish emigrate to (i), (ii) North America Free Trade Agreement (i), (ii) TPP (i) Cape of Good Hope (i) capital, mobility of (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) see also cross-border capital flow Capital in the Twenty-First Century (Thomas Piketty) (i) capitalism communism and (i) free-market capitalism (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Fukuyama’s disciples on (i) Steffens and Shaw on (i) US economic model and (i) Caribbean (i) Carter, Jimmy (i) Castillon, Battle of (i) Castro, Fidel (i) Catherine of Aragon (i) Catherine the Great (i) Catholics (i), (ii), (iii) Caucasus (i), (ii) Central African Republic (i), (ii) Central America (i) Central Asia (i), (ii), (iii) see also Asia central banks (i), (ii) see also bankers inflation targets (i) Kosmos (i) price distortion (i) printing money (i), (ii) quantitative easing (i), (ii), (iii) zero interest rates and (i) Chad (i) Chechens (i) checks and balances (i), (ii) Chile (i) China (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) 1980 emergence (i) ageing population (i) attracting Western investment (i) balance of payments surplus (i) boom to slowdown (i) Brazil and (i) British in (i) Coca-Cola and (i) demand for German goods (i) Deng Xiaoping (i) Disney and (i) economic resurgence (i), (ii) excess capital in US (i) foreign capital for (i) iPhones (i) Japan and (i) living standards (i) military spending (i) OECD and (i) per capita incomes (i), (ii) ratifies Paris climate deal (i) rise of renminbi (i), (ii) Russia threatens (i) South China Sea and neighbour disputes (i) TPP and (i) treaty ports (i) Trump’s protectionism and (i) US tries to contain (i), (ii), (iii) Chongqing (i), (ii) Christianity (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Churchill, Winston (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)n1 CIA (i) Ciudadanos (i) Cleveland, Grover (i) climate change (i), (ii) Clinton, Hillary 2016 campaign (i) Bernie Sanders opposes (i) concerns of supporters (i) rejects TPP (i), (ii) Syria (i) wins Democrat nomination (i) clubs (i), (ii) Cobden, Richard (i), (ii), (iii) Coca-Cola (i) ‘coffin ships’ (i) Cold War binary rivalry, a (i) economic differences (i) end of (i), (ii) globalization and (i) NATO and (i) Soviet living standards (i) collateralized debt obligations (CDOs) (i) Collins, Philip (i) Columbus, Christopher (i), (ii), (iii) commodity markets (i), (ii), (iii) common sense (i) Commonwealth (i) communism Berlin Wall and (i) capitalism and (i) Cuba (i) Marx’s stages (i) Shaw extols (i) Soviet Union collapse and (i), (ii) Como, Lake (i) Comptoir National d’Escompte de Paris (i) Concert of Europe (i) Congo (i) Congress (US) 1933 banking crisis (i) American public’s confidence in (i) Bush Jnr on terrorism (i) Immigration Act 1917 (i) Japanese sanctions (i), (ii) Smoot–Hawley tariff (i) Congress of Vienna (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Connally, John (i) Conolly, Arthur (i) Conservative Party (i), (ii) Constantinople (i), (ii) Constitutional Tribunal (Poland) (i) ‘Convention of Peking’ (i) Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (i) Corbyn, Jeremy (i), (ii) Córdoba (i), (ii) corporate scandals (i) Corroyer, Edouard (i) Court of Cassation (Egypt) (i) Crécy, Battle of (i) Creole languages (i) Crimea (i), (ii) Crimean War (19th century) (i) crop yields (i) cross-border capital flow allocation of resources and (i) emerging markets and (i), (ii) extraordinary growth of (i), (ii), (iii) globalization dominated by (i) inequality and (i) Varoufakis tries to limit (i) Cuba (i) Czech Republic (i) Czechoslovakia (i) Darius the Great (i) Darwin, Charles (i) Davos (i), (ii) de Gaulle, Charles (i), (ii) debt (i) Africa (i) China (i) debt to income ratios (i) government debt (i) Latin America (i) low inflation and (i) deflation (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Delhi (i) demand management (i), (ii) Democratic Party (US) (i), (ii) Democratic Republic of the Congo (i) Denfert-Rochereau, Eugène (i) Deng Xiaoping (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Denmark (i), (ii) Department of Housing and Urban Development (US) (i) deposit insurance (i) devaluation 1930s (i), (ii), (iii) dollars, gold and (i) Eisenhower and Britain (i) franc (i) right conditions for (i) Diaoyu (i) Disney (i), (ii) Doha Round (i) dollar (US) see American dollar Dow Jones Industrial Average (i) Draghi, Mario (i) Duisburg (i) Duterte, Rodrigo (i), (ii) DVDs (i) East Africa (i) see also Africa Eastern Europe EU and its effects (i) importing democracy (i) joining the EU (i), (ii) Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (i) New World emigration (i) Ottoman Empire and (i) Soviet communism and (i), (ii), (iii) ‘Economic Theory of Clubs’ (James Buchanan) (i) Ecuador (i) Eden, Anthony (i), (ii) Edison, Thomas (i) Edison Electric (i) educational attainment (i) Edward VI, King (i) Egypt (i), (ii), (iii) Einstein, Albert (i) Eisenhower, Dwight D. (i) elites (i) Ellis Island (i) Empire Windrush, SS (i) empires (i) End of Alchemy, The (Mervyn King) (i)n12 End of History, The (Francis Fukuyama) (i), (ii), (iii) England (i), (ii), (iii) see also United Kingdom Enron (i) Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip (i) EU (European Union) asylum seekers (i), (ii), (iii) blame thrown at (i) Brexit (i), (ii) eastward expansion (i) economic success and (i) former Soviet countries and (i) Hamas and (i) increasing membership, effect of (i) Juncker Plan (i) key arrangements lacking (i) Marshall Plan and (i) member states and their citizens (i) nation states and (i) Poland and (i) problems from a break-up of (i) Schengen Agreement (i), (ii) Syrian refugees (i) Eurasian Economic Union (i) European Central Bank (i) European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) (i), (ii) European Commission (i) European Economic Community (EEC) (i), (ii) see also EU European Exchange Rate Arrangement (i) European House Ambrosetti (i) European Monetary System (i) European Parliament (i) European Recovery (Marshall) Plan (i) Eurozone 2010 crisis (i), (ii), (iii) debtor and creditor nations (i) gap in living standards and (i) impact on rest of world (i) partial aspects of a nation state (i) Spaniards look for work (i) UK deflation and (i) exchange controls (i), (ii) Exchange Rate Mechanism (i) exchange rates (i), (ii) exclusion, sense of (i) experts (i) Facebook (i), (ii), (iii) FaceTime (i) fashion (i) Federal Reserve 2009 emergency measures (i) Bernanke (i) central to global economy (i) Greenspan (i) IMF and (i), (ii)n21 interest rates and (i) printing money (i) S&P 500 index (i) Volcker (i) Finland (i), (ii), (iii) Finns Party (i) First Opium War (i) First World War aftermath in West (i) immigration during (i) US and (i), (ii), (iii) US view of (i) Versailles (i) world turned upside down (i) Five Star Movement (i), (ii) Florence (i) Forbes (i) Forum Villa d’Este (i) ‘Four Freedoms’ (i), (ii) France American troops stationed (i) banks and Eurozone crisis (i) banning the burqa and niqab (i) Coal and Steel (i), (ii) franc plummets (i) G7 (i) Germany and (i) Mitterrand and (i) per capita incomes (i) position in EU (i) Second Gulf War condemned (i) Suez (i) UN Security Council (i) warship tonnage (i) Franco-Prussian War (i), (ii) Franklin, Benjamin (i) free trade Bernie Sanders opposes (i) British Empire and (i) Cobden (i), (ii) EU and (i) evidence regarding (i) protectionism and (i) RCEP and (i) Soviet communism and (i) TPP and (i) Trump against (i) UK leads the way (i), (ii) Freedom and Justice Party (Egypt) (i) Freedom House (i), (ii) French Indochina (i) French Revolution (i) Friedman, Milton (i) Front National (i) Fukushima (i) Fukuyama, Francis (i), (ii), (iii) G5 (i), (ii) G7 (i), (ii) G20 (i) Gaddafi, Colonel (i) Gallup (i), (ii) Gansu corridor (i) Gansu province (China) (i) Gastarbeiter (i), (ii) GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) creation (i), (ii) industrial nations and (i) protectionism kept at bay (i) rounds of (i), (ii), (iii) Gaza (i) General Electric (GE) (i), (ii) General Strike (i) General Theory (John Maynard Keynes) (i) Geneva (i), (ii) Geneva Convention (i) Genghis Khan (i) Georgia (Europe) (i), (ii), (iii) Germany (i) ageing population (i) American troops stationed (i) asylum seekers (i), (ii) Bundesbank (i) Coal and Steel (i), (ii) financial strength (i) France and (i) G7 (i) Gastarbeiter (i) hatred of inflation (i) history of unification (i) Hitler (i) interest rates (i) migration to US (i) per capita incomes (i) position in EU (i) post-First World War (i) post-Second World War (i), (ii) Second Gulf War condemned (i) Southern Europe deficits and (i) Turkish population (i) warship tonnage (i) Weimar Republic (i) Giralda (i), (ii) glacial melt (i) Global Peace Index (i) globalization 19th century (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) 2016 US election (i) Brexiteers and (i) competing currencies and (i) cross-border capital flows dominate (i) see also cross-border capital flow immigrants and (i), (ii) in big trouble (i) information technology and (i) key claims regarding (i) key drivers (i) nation states and (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) opponents of (i) rich benefit from (i) technology and (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Trump rejects (i), (ii) Glorious Revolution (i) Góes, Carlos (i) GOFF (Global Organization for Financial Flows) (i) gold (i), (ii) 19th century (i), (ii) Churchill re-joins gold standard (i) post-First World War (i) sub-Saharan trade in (i) US dollar and (i) Golden Dawn (i) Google (i), (ii) Gove, Michael (i) Gramm–Rudman–Hollings Act (i) Grand Canal (China) (i) Grand Mosque of Córdoba (i) Great Debasement (i) Great Depression bailing out the banks (i) British Empire survives (i) fears of another (i) GATT and (i) macroeconomics and (i) moving away from the free market (i) Great Game (i) Great Illusion, The (Norman Angell) (i) ‘Great Moderation’ (i), (ii), (iii) ‘Great Society’ (i) ‘Great White Fleet’ (i) Greece asylum seekers and (i) border problems (i) financial weakness (i) joins EU (i) Persia and ancient Greece (i) private sector creditors turn back on (i) Syriza (i), (ii) Greenspan, Alan (i) Grenada (i), (ii)n4 Gresham’s Law (i) Guam (i) Guantanamo Bay (i) Guinness (i) Guizhou province (China) (i), (ii) Gujarat (i) Gulag (i) Gulf States (i) Gulf War, First (i) Gulf War, Second (i), (ii), (iii) Gutt, Camille (i) Haiti (i) Haldeman, H.R.

…

Yet thanks to the shooting skills of Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo five years later, it turned out that no amount of political or economic logic could prevent a catastrophic conflagration. The First World War turned the world upside down economically, financially and politically. The Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires disappeared without trace, while the British Empire began what proved to be its terminal decline. Eighty years on, as the Soviet states began to crumble, Francis Fukuyama, the eminent political scientist, argued that: The most remarkable development of the last quarter of the twentieth century has been the revelation of enormous weaknesses at the core of the world’s seemingly strong dictatorships … liberal democracy remains the only coherent political aspiration … liberal principles in economics – the ‘free market’ – have spread, and have succeeded in producing unprecedented levels of material prosperity, both in industrially developed countries and in countries that had been part of the impoverished Third World.5 More than two decades after the publication of Fukuyama’s The End of History – both as a 1989 short paper6 and a 1992 weighty tome – its claims no longer appear to be quite so secure.

Global Inequality: A New Approach for the Age of Globalization by Branko Milanovic

Asian financial crisis, assortative mating, Berlin Wall, bitcoin, Black Swan, Branko Milanovic, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, centre right, colonial exploitation, colonial rule, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, deglobalization, demographic transition, Deng Xiaoping, discovery of the americas, European colonialism, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Gini coefficient, Gunnar Myrdal, income inequality, income per capita, invisible hand, labor-force participation, liberal capitalism, low skilled workers, Martin Wolf, means of production, military-industrial complex, mittelstand, moral hazard, Nash equilibrium, offshore financial centre, oil shock, open borders, open immigration, Paul Samuelson, place-making, plutocrats, post scarcity, post-industrial society, profit motive, purchasing power parity, Ralph Nader, Robert Solow, Second Machine Age, seigniorage, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, special economic zone, stakhanovite, trade route, transfer pricing, very high income, Vilfredo Pareto, Washington Consensus, women in the workforce

It was dominated by the Washington Consensus (a set of policy prescriptions that emphasized deregulation and privatization) and the forecasting of the “end of history” (the title of an influential 1989 article by Francis Fukuyama, leading to the book The End of History and the Last Man [1992]). Japan still appeared to be ascendant, but China made a cameo appearance. Many of the books celebrated neoliberalism and predicted its speedy extension to the rest of the world, including the Middle East. Later, the US invasion of Iraq would be justified by, among other things, an appeal to the “end of history.”5 The war was supposed to bring democracy to Iraq and indirectly to the rest of the Arab world, resulting in an end to the intractable conflict between Israelis and Palestinians in negotiations between the now democratic parties.

…

A much more realistic, and in some areas like migration, strikingly prescient, picture was painted by Alfred Sauvy in his excellent Zero Growth? (1976) (the French original was published in 1973). 5. See Francis Fukuyama’s interview with Spiegel International, “A Model Democracy Is Not Emerging in Iraq” (March 22, 2006), available at http://www.spiegel.de/international/interview-with-ex-neocon-francis-fukuyama-a-model-democracy-is-not-emerging-in-iraq-a-407315.html. 6. It could be that Chinese weapons producers, which are all state-owned, are less belligerent than their American counterparts because there is nothing for them to gain in case of a war. 7.

…

See also capital; Industrial Revolution and industrialization; labor; skill-biased technological progress economicism, naïve, 73 economic power, 102 economics, discipline of, 234–239 economies, main features of, 246n12 economies of scale, 13 education: twenty-first and twenty-second centuries and, 7, 181; skill-biased technological progress and, 47; twentieth century and, 53, 93–94; preindustrial period and, 70; Brazil and, 82; Chile and, 84; communist countries and, 99; Kuznets cycles and, 99, 117; socialist great leveling and, 100, 102; war and, 102; union density and, 106; race with skills and, 114; United States, 114, 188, 189, 260n24; migrant taxes and, 152; China and, 178; United States and, 181, 263n4; capital/ labor income and, 186–187, 216; globalization and, 207–208, 215–217; equalizing, 218, 219–222; capital income and, 221–222; wages and, 256n21, 263n3; assortative mating and, 260n26; families and, 263n4. See also benign/malign forces; social services effort, work, 140 Ehrlich, Paul, 21 1820–2011, 119–125, 127–132. See also Industrial Revolution; preindustrial period; twentieth century elephant curve, 242n8 Elsby, Michael W. L., 182 emerging market economies, 29 End of History and the Last Man, The (Fukuyama), 157 endowments, 218, 220–222 Engels, Friedrich, 129, 255n14 entrepreneurship, 100–101 entropy index, 254n10 environmental concerns, 232–233, 234, 263n9 epidemics, 50, 57, 62–63, 65, 69, 98. See also benign/malign forces; plague equality of opportunity, 238–239 “equivalent units,” 13 expenditures as share of GDP (United Kingdom and United States), 246n10 exports, 24, 62, 143, 173, 235, 236–237, 241n2 false consciousness, 114, 200, 201–202, 217 families, 112, 141, 215–216, 263n4.

War for Eternity: Inside Bannon's Far-Right Circle of Global Power Brokers by Benjamin R. Teitelbaum

Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, bitcoin, Black Lives Matter, Boris Johnson, Cambridge Analytica, creative destruction, crony capitalism, cryptocurrency, Donald Trump, Etonian, fake news, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, illegal immigration, Joseph Schumpeter, liberal capitalism, liberal world order, mass immigration, mutually assured destruction, Network effects, public intellectual, Saturday Night Live, school choice, side project, Skype, South China Sea, Steve Bannon, Westphalian system, WikiLeaks

“All that is anti-liberal is good”: “Alexander Dugin (Introduction by Mark Sleboda) Identitär Idé 4 / Identitarian Ideas 4,” YouTube, September 14, 2012, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7X-o_ndhSVA. Note that I lightly edit Dugin’s English throughout these quotations, as I do in my interview with him. Francis Fukuyama: Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” The National Interest 16 (Summer 1989). all three were modernist: These ideas are more fully elaborated in Aleksandr Dugin, The Fourth Political Theory (London: Arktos, 2012), 17. Chapter 12: The Summit nobody seemed to notice: Luca Steinmann, “The Illiberal Far-Right of Aleksandr Dugin.

…

Because to be a woman or to be a man, that means that we have a collective identity.” This way of thinking about people, defining them as ideally disconnected (liberated) from religion, family, nation, even their own bodies is historically exotic and insidious, he claimed. And as even a proponent of liberalism like Francis Fukuyama understood, it would leave us yearning for community. That problem, Dugin argued, birthed the two main challenges to liberalism in the twentieth century: communism and fascism. Both ideologies aspired to promote an alternative entity—not the individual, but two collectivities, class and race.

…

Christianity, however, claimed to be a universal truth superseding local beliefs. It guided people to disdain and abandon their roots through its assertion that the past was sin and the future will bring salvation. Especially in its Protestant incarnations, Christianity would unite all humans in the pursuit of a unified goal at the end of history: communion with God. Marxism and capitalism adopted a lot of these ideas, each claiming to be an absolute truth for all people, regardless of blood or creed, and attempting to funnel all toward a unified goal in the future rather than the past—be it earthly communist utopia, personal wealth, or mere social “progress” instead of a union with the divine.

Unsustainable Inequalities: Social Justice and the Environment by Lucas Chancel

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Anthropocene, behavioural economics, biodiversity loss, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carbon footprint, carbon tax, centre right, clean water, COVID-19, disinformation, Donald Trump, energy security, energy transition, financial deregulation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Gini coefficient, green new deal, income inequality, Indoor air pollution, job satisfaction, low skilled workers, offshore financial centre, oil shock, price stability, purchasing power parity, Ronald Reagan, Simon Kuznets, The Spirit Level, The Theory of the Leisure Class by Thorstein Veblen, Thorstein Veblen, trade liberalization, Tragedy of the Commons, transaction costs, urban planning, very high income, Washington Consensus

This is quite remarkable and deserves to be emphasized: rich nations have swallowed at least some of their pride and accepted, or pretended to accept—I shall return to this point in due course—that the international community as a whole should have a say in determining the course of their own development. The “end of history”—the ultimate stage of liberal democracy theorized by the political scientist Francis Fukuyama—has therefore not yet arrived: all countries, including Western democracies meeting in Rio in 2012, realized that they still had a ways to go before reaching true prosperity.4 The American social scientist David Le Blanc has carefully studied the official resolutions establishing the SDGs in the hope of discovering the central aim that this sprawling agenda seeks to achieve.5 From his analysis it becomes apparent that the goal of reducing inequalities of wealth, gender, power, and access to resources stands out among a network of more or less closely interrelated targets.

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World Bank Group, Poverty and Shared Prosperity 2016: Taking on Inequality (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2016), https://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/10.1596/978-1-4648-0958-3; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Divided We Stand: Why Inequality Keeps Rising (Paris: OECD, 2011); Jonathan D. Ostry, Andrew Berg, and Charalambos G. Tsangarides, “Redistribution, Inequality, and Growth,” IMF Discussion Note, February 2014, https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2014/sdn1402.pdf. 4. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 5. David Le Blanc, “Towards Integration at Last? The Sustainable Development Goals as a Network of Targets” (working paper no. 141, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, April 10, 2015), https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/sd.1582. 6.

The Transhumanist Reader by Max More, Natasha Vita-More

"World Economic Forum" Davos, 23andMe, Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic, artificial general intelligence, augmented reality, Bill Joy: nanobots, bioinformatics, brain emulation, Buckminster Fuller, cellular automata, clean water, cloud computing, cognitive bias, cognitive dissonance, combinatorial explosion, Computing Machinery and Intelligence, conceptual framework, Conway's Game of Life, cosmological principle, data acquisition, discovery of DNA, Douglas Engelbart, Drosophila, en.wikipedia.org, endogenous growth, experimental subject, Extropian, fault tolerance, Flynn Effect, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frank Gehry, friendly AI, Future Shock, game design, germ theory of disease, Hans Moravec, hypertext link, impulse control, index fund, John von Neumann, joint-stock company, Kevin Kelly, Law of Accelerating Returns, life extension, lifelogging, Louis Pasteur, Menlo Park, meta-analysis, moral hazard, Network effects, Nick Bostrom, Norbert Wiener, pattern recognition, Pepto Bismol, phenotype, positional goods, power law, precautionary principle, prediction markets, presumed consent, Project Xanadu, public intellectual, radical life extension, Ray Kurzweil, reversible computing, RFID, Ronald Reagan, scientific worldview, silicon-based life, Singularitarianism, social intelligence, stem cell, stochastic process, superintelligent machines, supply-chain management, supply-chain management software, synthetic biology, systems thinking, technological determinism, technological singularity, Ted Nelson, telepresence, telepresence robot, telerobotics, the built environment, The Coming Technological Singularity, the scientific method, The Wisdom of Crowds, transaction costs, Turing machine, Turing test, Upton Sinclair, Vernor Vinge, Von Neumann architecture, VTOL, Whole Earth Review, women in the workforce, zero-sum game

Meanwhile, maddened children, deluded fanatics, and terrorists like Theodore Kaczynski (the Unabomber) murder with homemade bombs or stolen passenger jets to express their distaste for this relentless and unprecedented future that has exploded, as it were, into reality. It was refreshing, then, in 2002, to find a public intellectual of Dr. Francis Fukuyama’s ­standing take on the intensely real, serious topic of accelerating biotechnology. Instant fame had embraced Fukuyama a decade earlier when his conservative The End of History (Fukuyama 2006) seemed to explain the Soviet Union’s abrupt collapse. Liberal humanism – democratic, realistic, and market-driven rather than authoritarian – had won the cold war against its authoritarian and deludedly utopian foes.

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Shapiro explains “moral category” arguments such as arguments from nature, arguments from identity, from merit, and from external influence, and argues that there are serious problems in distinguishing disorder from augmentation models. This matters because some people have argued in favor of allowing treatments for disorders while prohibiting them for augmentations that are otherwise similar in nature. Philosopher Andy Miah casts a critical eye on Donna Haraway’s concept of the “cyborg” and Francis Fukuyama’s views on “posthumanism.” Miah argues that the technoprogressive pursuit of biological transgressions can enrich individual and collective human life, while also permitting societies to attend to any social injustices that might arise through such behavior. Miah concludes with a full articulation of the concept of “biocultural capital,” which conveys a general, transhumanist justification for human enhancement.

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One of the main criticisms of this emerging era is the way in which it may commodify life, the focus of the next section. Life as a Commodity If one acknowledges the merit of systematically reinforcing human biology so it is optimized to flourish – while accepting that one cannot expect certainty of bringing about such conditions – then what objections might there be to such a system? Francis Fukuyama’s (2002) primary concern is the commercial character of such a system of healthcare. He argues that such commercialization will lead inevitably to the commodification of life and this will diminish human flourishing, notably through it bringing about an impoverished view of human dignity. In response, I will seek to explain how the freedom to pursue commercial enhancements may be justified on the basis of what I call the accumulation of biocultural capital.

Free World: America, Europe, and the Surprising Future of the West by Timothy Garton Ash

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Albert Einstein, battle of ideas, Berlin Wall, BRICs, British Empire, call centre, centre right, clean water, Columbine, continuation of politics by other means, cuban missile crisis, demographic transition, Deng Xiaoping, Doha Development Round, Eratosthenes, European colonialism, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, illegal immigration, income inequality, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), James Watt: steam engine, Kickstarter, Mikhail Gorbachev, Nelson Mandela, Peace of Westphalia, postnationalism / post nation state, Project for a New American Century, purchasing power parity, reserve currency, Ronald Reagan, shareholder value, Silicon Valley, Suez crisis 1956, Thomas Malthus, trade liberalization, Washington Consensus, working poor, working-age population, World Values Survey

The fact that this confirmation came from a right-wing American—indeed, one of the fabled, demonized cabal of neoconservatives—doubled the impact. It was as if the devil had just certified the status of the angels. Europeans had already derived their two biggest political ideas of the post–Cold War era from the United States: Francis Fukuyama’s End of History and Samuel Huntington’s Clash of Civilizations. Like Kagan’s boutade, both had started as journal articles with a striking, deliberately overstated thesis. The authors’ subsequent caveats and qualifications in the longer book versions passed largely unnoticed. But this was something more.

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Then there will be no cause for terror. Underlying the starkest version of this vision is an equally breathtaking analytical premise: that there is now “a single sustainable model for national success: freedom, democracy, and free enterprise.”18 This recalls Francis Fukuyama’s argument for a “worldwide liberal revolution” in his hugely influential article of 1989 and subsequent book on The End of History,19 and the so-called Washington Consensus of the IMF and World Bank in the 1990s. The bald simplicity of this claim for a single sustainable model, with its implicit image of America as a model for the future of all humankind, has offended many Europeans, Africans, Asians, and others who have themselves long been committed to such a post-Enlightenment, global meliorist aspiration.

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National security strategy issued on September 17, 2002, section III. All quotations are from the version on http://www.whitehouse.gov. 8. In his State of the Union address to Congress on January 6, 1941. 9. In Newsweek, special Davos edition “Issues 2004,” dated December 2003–February 2004. 10. The list in Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (London: Penguin, 1992), p. 49, seems to me arbitrarily short. I am most grateful to Jonathan Keates, and his disintegrating Almanach de Gotha, for help in augmenting it. 11. This and the following figures follow Larry Diamond, “A Report Card on Democracy,” Hoover Digest, 2000, no. 3, pp. 91–100, p. 91. 12.

A Short History of Progress by Ronald Wright

Albert Einstein, Atahualpa, Bretton Woods, British Empire, clean water, Columbian Exchange, cuban missile crisis, Easter island, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Haber-Bosch Process, Hernando de Soto, invention of agriculture, It's morning again in America, James Watt: steam engine, Jane Jacobs, land reform, Mahatma Gandhi, mass immigration, nuclear winter, out of africa, Parkinson's law, post-war consensus, precautionary principle, Ronald Reagan, technological determinism, Thomas Malthus, urban sprawl

In both its capitalist and communist versions, the great promise of modernity was progress without limit and without end. The collapse of the Soviet Union led many to conclude that there was really only one way of progress after all. In 1992 Francis Fukuyama, a former U.S. State Department official, declared that capitalism and democracy were the “end” of history — not only its destination but its goal.8 Doubters pointed out that capitalism and democracy are not necessarily bedfellows, citing Nazi Germany, modern China, and the worldwide archipelago of sweatshop tyrannies. Yet Fukuyama’s naive triumphalism strengthened a belief, mainly on the political right, that those who have not chosen the true way forward should be made to do so for their own good — by force, if necessary.

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Whether the Russians uttered the same threat, I don’t know. But it was certainly a credible one. Even if a nuclear “exchange” (as the euphemism went) failed to extinguish all higher forms of life, it would have ended civilization worldwide. No crops worth eating would grow in a nuclear winter. 8. See Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 9. Alexander Pope, An Essay on Criticism, 1711; Thomas Henry Huxley, On Elementary Instruction in Physiology, 1877. 10. Quoted in Robert J. Wenke, Patterns in Prehistory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), p. 79. 11. William Shakespeare, Hamlet, act 2, scene 2. 12.

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A measure of participation filtered grudgingly down the social pyramid, while the new industrial economy nourished a growing middle class.33 We in the lucky countries of the West now regard our two-century bubble of freedom and affluence as normal and inevitable; it has even been called the “end” of history, in both a temporal and teleological sense.34 Yet this new order is an anomaly: the opposite of what usually happens as civilizations grow. Our age was bankrolled by the seizing of half a planet, extended by taking over most of the remaining half, and has been sustained by spending down new forms of natural capital, especially fossil fuels.

Second World: Empires and Influence in the New Global Order by Parag Khanna

Abraham Maslow, Admiral Zheng, affirmative action, anti-communist, Asian financial crisis, Bartolomé de las Casas, Branko Milanovic, British Empire, call centre, capital controls, central bank independence, cognitive dissonance, colonial rule, complexity theory, continuation of politics by other means, crony capitalism, death from overwork, Deng Xiaoping, different worldview, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Donald Trump, dual-use technology, Edward Glaeser, energy security, European colonialism, export processing zone, facts on the ground, failed state, flex fuel, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, friendly fire, gentrification, Gini coefficient, global reserve currency, global supply chain, Great Leap Forward, guns versus butter model, haute couture, Hernando de Soto, illegal immigration, income inequality, informal economy, invisible hand, Islamic Golden Age, karōshi / gwarosa / guolaosi, Khyber Pass, Kickstarter, knowledge economy, land reform, Londongrad, low cost airline, low skilled workers, mass immigration, means of production, megacity, meritocracy, military-industrial complex, Monroe Doctrine, Nelson Mandela, no-fly zone, oil shale / tar sands, oil shock, oil-for-food scandal, open borders, open economy, Parag Khanna, Pax Mongolica, Pearl River Delta, pirate software, Plutonomy: Buying Luxury, Explaining Global Imbalances, Potemkin village, price stability, race to the bottom, RAND corporation, reserve currency, restrictive zoning, rising living standards, Robert Solow, Ronald Reagan, Silicon Valley, Skype, South China Sea, special economic zone, stem cell, Stephen Hawking, Suez crisis 1956, Thomas L Friedman, trade route, trickle-down economics, uranium enrichment, urban renewal, Washington Consensus, women in the workforce

Geopolitics has since evolved into a family of holistic power formulae applied across the world and over long time horizons, what Fernand Braudel termed the longue durée.19 But it remains Toynbee’s story of challenge and response. GEOPOLITICS VERSUS GLOBALIZATION? In the 1990s, a great debate took place between the contrasting visions of Francis Fukuyama (The End of History) and Samuel Huntington (The Clash of Civilizations), with the former generally caricatured as utopian and the latter as fatalistic. The grand predecessor to this dichotomy was the tension between the worldviews of Oswald Spengler and Arnold Toynbee. Spengler opened The Decline of the West (1918) with the bold claim, “This book will for the first time attempt to predict history.”

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Today there are numerous equivalent statements on the pacifying effect of globalization, each echoing Norman Angell’s Great Illusion claim of the “complete economic futility of conquest.” Francis Fukuyama argues for the end of ideological struggle; John Mueller observes that the prospect of total, annihilating war makes it “subrationally unthinkable” Jonathan Schell and Peter Singer see the emergence of global consciousness as the “moral equivalent of war” or a “weapon of civilization” Robert Wright demonstrates that the accumulation of positive outcomes disincentivizes conflict; and Anatol Lieven and John Hulsman argue for a “Great Capitalist Peace.” See Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Avon Books, 1992); Mueller, Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War (New York: Basic Books, 1989); Schell, The Unconquerable World: Power, Nonviolence, and the Will of the People (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2003); Singer, One World: The Ethics of Globalization (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2003); Wright, Non-Zero: The Logic of Human Destiny (New York: Vintage, 2000); and Lieven and Hulsman, Ethical Realism. 69.

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Stateness refers to a government’s capacity to enforce its power, ranging from minimal functions (public goods, property rights, defense) to intermediate functions (addressing externalities, education, regulation, social insurance) to more activist roles (industrial policy, wealth redistribution). See Francis Fukuyama, State-Building: Governance and World Order in the Twenty-first Century (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2004). Four decades ago, Samuel Huntington wrote in Political Order in Changing Societies that “the most important political distinction among countries concerns not their form of government, but their degree of government.

Break Through: Why We Can't Leave Saving the Planet to Environmentalists by Michael Shellenberger, Ted Nordhaus

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Abraham Maslow, affirmative action, An Inconvenient Truth, anti-communist, Berlin Wall, bread and circuses, carbon credits, carbon tax, clean water, conceptual framework, David Brooks, deindustrialization, Easter island, facts on the ground, falling living standards, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Great Leap Forward, Herbert Marcuse, illegal immigration, Indoor air pollution, insecure affluence, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invisible hand, knowledge economy, land reform, loss aversion, market fundamentalism, McMansion, means of production, meta-analysis, Michael Shellenberger, microcredit, new economy, oil shock, postindustrial economy, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Richard Florida, science of happiness, seminal paper, Silicon Valley, Stewart Brand, Ted Nordhaus, the strength of weak ties, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, trade liberalization, War on Poverty, We are as Gods, winner-take-all economy, World Values Survey, zero-sum game

Fukuyama acknowledges that he signed the 1998 letter to Clinton but then adds, in order to downplay the significance of the letter, “An American invasion of Iraq was not then in the cards, however, and would not be until the events of September 11, 2001” (x). Fukuyama implies that his position changed after 9/11, but if that were the case then he would not have signed the September 20, 2001, letter urging President George W. Bush to remove Hussein from power—a fact he is careful not to mention in America at the Crossroads. [back] 7. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 338. [back] 8. Fukuyama himself acknowledged his indebtedness to Marx’s vision of historical development and approvingly quotes Ken Jowitt’s reflection that “in [September 11’s] aftermath, the Bush administration has concluded that Fukuyama’s historical timetable is too laissez-faire and not nearly attentive enough to the levers of historical change . . .

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America’s humiliation in Iraq, nuclear proliferation in Iran, and the threat of further terrorism—these are likely to trigger greater insecurity and fear, psychological states that history and a great deal of empirical research show drive conservatism far more strongly than liberalism.2 In this context, to remain reality based is to accept a status quo that is bad for progressives everywhere from Tehran to Akron. 1. In 2006, as Iraq spiraled ever further out of the Bush administration’s control, the neoconservative intellectual consensus behind the U.S. invasion began to come apart. That year, a leading American neoconservative, Francis Fukuyama, published America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy, in which he broke from neoconservativism.3 Once in 1998 and again in 2001, after September 11, Fukuyama signed open letters urging military action be taken to remove Saddam Hussein from power.4 “Failure to undertake such an effort,” the 2001 letter to President Bush warned, “will constitute an early and perhaps decisive surrender in the war on international terrorism.”5 America at the Crossroads served as his mea culpa, albeit one that required that he airbrush his advocacy of U.S. military action in Iraq after 9/11.6 In the book, Fukuyama reasserted an argument he had made fourteen years earlier in The End of History and the Last Man, which was that the collapse of the Soviet Union and the democratization of former right-wing dictatorships in places like Chile signaled the end of history prophesied by the philosopher Hegel in the early nineteenth century.

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Suddenly we have natures, and it is impossible to make natures play any political role whatsoever.” 10. Greatness 1. Ron Suskind, “Without a Doubt,” New York Times Magazine, October 17, 2004. [back] 2. John T. Jost et al., “Political Conservatism as Motivated Social Cognition,” Psychological Bulletin 129, no. 3 (2003): 339–75. [back] 3. Francis Fukuyama, America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006). [back] 4. The January 26, 1998, letter to President Clinton that Fukuyama signed reads, “The only acceptable strategy is one that eliminates the possibility that Iraq will be able to use or threaten to use weapons of mass destruction.

Age of Anger: A History of the Present by Pankaj Mishra

anti-communist, Asian financial crisis, Ayatollah Khomeini, Berlin Wall, Boeing 747, Brexit referendum, British Empire, classic study, colonial rule, continuation of politics by other means, creative destruction, Donald Trump, Edward Snowden, Evgeny Morozov, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Fellow of the Royal Society, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, George Santayana, global village, Great Leap Forward, Gunnar Myrdal, informal economy, invisible hand, liberal capitalism, Mahatma Gandhi, Marshall McLuhan, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, Nelson Mandela, Oklahoma City bombing, Peter Thiel, Philip Mirowski, planetary scale, plutocrats, power law, precariat, public intellectual, Republic of Letters, Scientific racism, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley billionaire, smart cities, Snapchat, stem cell, technological solutionism, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Timothy McVeigh, trade route, traveling salesman, urban planning, Vilfredo Pareto, wage slave, women in the workforce, zero-sum game

In particular, the attacks of 9/11, breaking into the general celebratory mood of globalization, sharpened an old divide. How could, it was felt, people be so opposed to modernity, and all the many goods it had to offer to people around the world: equality, liberty, prosperity, toleration, pluralism and representative government. Having proclaimed the end of history, Francis Fukuyama wondered whether there is ‘something about Islam’ that made ‘Muslim societies particularly resistant to modernity’. Such perplexity, widely shared, was answered by a simple idea: that these opponents of modernity were religious fanatics – jihadists – seeking martyrdom; they were unenlightened zealots.

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This religion of universal progress has had many presumptive popes and encyclicals: from the nineteenth-century dream championed by The Economist, in which capital, goods, jobs and people freely circulate, to Henry Luce’s proclamation of an ‘American century’ of free trade, and ‘Modernization Theory’, which proclaimed a ‘great world revolution in human aspirations and economic development’. Writing soon after 9/11, Francis Fukuyama seemed more convinced than ever that ‘modernity is a very powerful freight train that will not be derailed by recent events, however painful and unprecedented. Democracy and free markets will continue to expand over time as the dominant organizing principles for much of the world.’ As late as 2008, Fareed Zakaria could declare in his much-cited book, The Post-American World, that ‘the rise of the rest is a consequence of American ideas and actions’ and that ‘the world is going America’s way’, with countries ‘becoming more open, market-friendly and democratic’, their numerous poor ‘slowly being absorbed into productive and growing economies’.

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Born in 1958, a year after Osama bin Laden, to a devout middle-class family in Aleppo, al-Suri dropped out of university in 1980 to join a radical group that opposed Syria’s secular nationalist Baath Party and advocated an Islamic state based on Shariah law. Working his way through various Islamist organizations in Asia and Africa, al-Suri ended up designing a leaderless and global jihad for uprooted men like himself. A Militant Intelligentsia Al-Suri, labelled by Newsweek the ‘Francis Fukuyama of al-Qaeda’, was more accurately the Mikhail Bakunin of the Muslim world in his preference for anarchist tactics. In his magnum opus, The Global Islamic Resistance Call (2004), al-Suri scorned hierarchical forms of political organization, exhorting a jihadi strategy based on ‘unconnected cells’ and ‘individual operations’ – a call answered by today’s auto-intoxicated killers.

Stakeholder Capitalism: A Global Economy That Works for Progress, People and Planet by Klaus Schwab, Peter Vanham

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", "World Economic Forum" Davos, 3D printing, additive manufacturing, agricultural Revolution, air traffic controllers' union, Anthropocene, Apple II, Asian financial crisis, Asperger Syndrome, basic income, Berlin Wall, Big Tech, biodiversity loss, bitcoin, Black Lives Matter, blockchain, blue-collar work, Branko Milanovic, Bretton Woods, British Empire, business process, capital controls, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, car-free, carbon footprint, carbon tax, centre right, clean tech, clean water, cloud computing, collateralized debt obligation, collective bargaining, colonial rule, company town, contact tracing, contact tracing app, Cornelius Vanderbilt, coronavirus, corporate governance, corporate social responsibility, COVID-19, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, credit default swaps / collateralized debt obligations, cryptocurrency, cuban missile crisis, currency peg, cyber-physical system, decarbonisation, demographic dividend, Deng Xiaoping, Diane Coyle, digital divide, don't be evil, European colonialism, Fall of the Berlin Wall, family office, financial innovation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, gender pay gap, general purpose technology, George Floyd, gig economy, Gini coefficient, global supply chain, global value chain, global village, Google bus, green new deal, Greta Thunberg, high net worth, hiring and firing, housing crisis, income inequality, income per capita, independent contractor, industrial robot, intangible asset, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Internet of things, invisible hand, James Watt: steam engine, Jeff Bezos, job automation, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Rogoff, Khan Academy, Kickstarter, labor-force participation, lockdown, low interest rates, low skilled workers, Lyft, manufacturing employment, Marc Benioff, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, Marshall McLuhan, Martin Wolf, means of production, megacity, microplastics / micro fibres, Mikhail Gorbachev, mini-job, mittelstand, move fast and break things, neoliberal agenda, Network effects, new economy, open economy, Peace of Westphalia, Peter Thiel, precariat, Productivity paradox, profit maximization, purchasing power parity, race to the bottom, reserve currency, reshoring, ride hailing / ride sharing, Ronald Reagan, Salesforce, San Francisco homelessness, School Strike for Climate, self-driving car, seminal paper, shareholder value, Shenzhen special economic zone , Shenzhen was a fishing village, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, social distancing, Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, special economic zone, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, synthetic biology, TaskRabbit, The Chicago School, The Future of Employment, The inhabitant of London could order by telephone, sipping his morning tea in bed, the various products of the whole earth, the scientific method, TikTok, Tim Cook: Apple, trade route, transfer pricing, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, union organizing, universal basic income, War on Poverty, We are the 99%, women in the workforce, working poor, working-age population, Yom Kippur War, young professional, zero-sum game

Shortly thereafter, political reunification of Germany was at last established. And by 1991, the Soviet Union had officially disintegrated. Many economies that lay in its sphere of influence, including those of East Germany, the Baltics, Poland, Hungary, and Romania, turned toward the West and its capitalist, free-market model. “The end of history,” as Francis Fukuyama would call it later,21 had arrived, it seemed. Europe got another boost, this time leading to even deeper political and economic integration and the establishment of a common market and a monetary union, with the euro currency as its apex. At Davos, we felt the winds of change as well.

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Convinced of the organic benefits of a globalized world, many governments opted to embrace free trade and floating currency exchanges and eliminate barriers to foreign investment at an accelerated pace since the early 1990s. This seemed like a no-brainer following the victory of the American-led capitalist model over the Soviet-led communist one—what Francis Fukuyama famously called “the end of history.” But it ignored the reality that the market does not always knows best—or21 at least it doesn't automatically look after the interests of everyone involved. Economists such as Joseph Stiglitz, Mariana Mazzucato, Dani Rodrik, and many others observed in recent work that growing financialization and financial globalization in fact increases the instability in the economic system and increases both the likelihood and depth of financial crises.

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persistentId=doi:10.21950/BBZVBN/U54JIA&version=1.0. 18 “Trade in the Digital Era,” OECD, March 2019, https://www.oecd.org/going-digital/trade-in-the-digital-era.pdf. 19 As the UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology explained: “ Tropical rainforests are often called the ‘lungs of the planet’ because they generally draw in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen,” https://www.ceh.ac.uk/news-and-media/news/tropical-rainforests-lungs-planet-reveal-true-sensitivity-global-warming. 20 “The Globalization Paradox: Democracy and the Future of the World Economy, Dani Rodrik, W.W. Norton, 2011, https://drodrik.scholar.harvard.edu/publications/globalization-paradox-democracy-and-future-world-economy” 21 “The End of History and the Last Man, Francis Fukuyama, Penguin Books, 1993”. 22 “The Rise and Fall of Hungary,” Zsolt Darvas, The Guardian, October 2008, https://www.theguardian.com/business/blog/2008/oct/29/hungary-imf. 23 “How Rotterdam Is Using Blockchain to Reinvent Global Trade,” Port of Rotterdam, September 2019, https://www.portofrotterdam.com/en/news-and-press-releases/how-rotterdam-is-using-blockchain-to-reinvent-global-trade. 24 Interview with William and Winston Utomo by Peter Vanham, Jakarta, Indonesia, October 16, 2020. 6 Technology A Changing Labor Market The press release touted a most remarkable headline: “Denmark in the world's top 10 for robots.”1 The organization behind the release was not a Danish tech firm, media outlet, or politician.

Stakeholder Capitalism: A Global Economy That Works for Progress, People and Planet by Klaus Schwab

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", "World Economic Forum" Davos, 3D printing, additive manufacturing, agricultural Revolution, air traffic controllers' union, Anthropocene, Apple II, Asian financial crisis, Asperger Syndrome, basic income, Berlin Wall, Big Tech, biodiversity loss, bitcoin, Black Lives Matter, blockchain, blue-collar work, Branko Milanovic, Bretton Woods, British Empire, business process, capital controls, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, car-free, carbon footprint, carbon tax, centre right, clean tech, clean water, cloud computing, collateralized debt obligation, collective bargaining, colonial rule, company town, contact tracing, contact tracing app, Cornelius Vanderbilt, coronavirus, corporate governance, corporate social responsibility, COVID-19, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, credit default swaps / collateralized debt obligations, cryptocurrency, cuban missile crisis, currency peg, cyber-physical system, decarbonisation, demographic dividend, Deng Xiaoping, Diane Coyle, digital divide, don't be evil, European colonialism, Fall of the Berlin Wall, family office, financial innovation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, gender pay gap, general purpose technology, George Floyd, gig economy, Gini coefficient, global supply chain, global value chain, global village, Google bus, green new deal, Greta Thunberg, high net worth, hiring and firing, housing crisis, income inequality, income per capita, independent contractor, industrial robot, intangible asset, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Internet of things, invisible hand, James Watt: steam engine, Jeff Bezos, job automation, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Rogoff, Khan Academy, Kickstarter, labor-force participation, lockdown, low interest rates, low skilled workers, Lyft, manufacturing employment, Marc Benioff, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, Marshall McLuhan, Martin Wolf, means of production, megacity, microplastics / micro fibres, Mikhail Gorbachev, mini-job, mittelstand, move fast and break things, neoliberal agenda, Network effects, new economy, open economy, Peace of Westphalia, Peter Thiel, precariat, Productivity paradox, profit maximization, purchasing power parity, race to the bottom, reserve currency, reshoring, ride hailing / ride sharing, Ronald Reagan, Salesforce, San Francisco homelessness, School Strike for Climate, self-driving car, seminal paper, shareholder value, Shenzhen special economic zone , Shenzhen was a fishing village, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, social distancing, Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, special economic zone, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, synthetic biology, TaskRabbit, The Chicago School, The Future of Employment, The inhabitant of London could order by telephone, sipping his morning tea in bed, the various products of the whole earth, the scientific method, TikTok, Tim Cook: Apple, trade route, transfer pricing, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, union organizing, universal basic income, War on Poverty, We are the 99%, women in the workforce, working poor, working-age population, Yom Kippur War, young professional, zero-sum game

Shortly thereafter, political reunification of Germany was at last established. And by 1991, the Soviet Union had officially disintegrated. Many economies that lay in its sphere of influence, including those of East Germany, the Baltics, Poland, Hungary, and Romania, turned toward the West and its capitalist, free-market model. “The end of history,” as Francis Fukuyama would call it later,21 had arrived, it seemed. Europe got another boost, this time leading to even deeper political and economic integration and the establishment of a common market and a monetary union, with the euro currency as its apex. At Davos, we felt the winds of change as well.

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Convinced of the organic benefits of a globalized world, many governments opted to embrace free trade and floating currency exchanges and eliminate barriers to foreign investment at an accelerated pace since the early 1990s. This seemed like a no-brainer following the victory of the American-led capitalist model over the Soviet-led communist one—what Francis Fukuyama famously called “the end of history.” But it ignored the reality that the market does not always knows best—or21 at least it doesn't automatically look after the interests of everyone involved. Economists such as Joseph Stiglitz, Mariana Mazzucato, Dani Rodrik, and many others observed in recent work that growing financialization and financial globalization in fact increases the instability in the economic system and increases both the likelihood and depth of financial crises.

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persistentId=doi:10.21950/BBZVBN/U54JIA&version=1.0. 18 “Trade in the Digital Era,” OECD, March 2019, https://www.oecd.org/going-digital/trade-in-the-digital-era.pdf. 19 As the UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology explained: “ Tropical rainforests are often called the ‘lungs of the planet’ because they generally draw in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen,” https://www.ceh.ac.uk/news-and-media/news/tropical-rainforests-lungs-planet-reveal-true-sensitivity-global-warming. 20 “The Globalization Paradox: Democracy and the Future of the World Economy, Dani Rodrik, W.W. Norton, 2011, https://drodrik.scholar.harvard.edu/publications/globalization-paradox-democracy-and-future-world-economy” 21 “The End of History and the Last Man, Francis Fukuyama, Penguin Books, 1993”. 22 “The Rise and Fall of Hungary,” Zsolt Darvas, The Guardian, October 2008, https://www.theguardian.com/business/blog/2008/oct/29/hungary-imf. 23 “How Rotterdam Is Using Blockchain to Reinvent Global Trade,” Port of Rotterdam, September 2019, https://www.portofrotterdam.com/en/news-and-press-releases/how-rotterdam-is-using-blockchain-to-reinvent-global-trade. 24 Interview with William and Winston Utomo by Peter Vanham, Jakarta, Indonesia, October 16, 2020. 6 Technology A Changing Labor Market The press release touted a most remarkable headline: “Denmark in the world's top 10 for robots.”1 The organization behind the release was not a Danish tech firm, media outlet, or politician.

The end of history and the last man by Francis Fukuyama

affirmative action, anti-communist, Ayatollah Khomeini, Berlin Wall, Bonfire of the Vanities, business cycle, centre right, classic study, cuban missile crisis, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, Donald Trump, European colonialism, Exxon Valdez, F. W. de Klerk, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Gini coefficient, Great Leap Forward, Gunnar Myrdal, Herbert Marcuse, Hernando de Soto, income inequality, Isaac Newton, Joan Didion, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, kremlinology, land reform, liberal world order, liberation theology, life extension, linear programming, long peace, means of production, Michael Milken, Mikhail Gorbachev, Nelson Mandela, New Journalism, nuclear winter, old-boy network, open economy, post-industrial society, RAND corporation, Ronald Reagan, Socratic dialogue, Strategic Defense Initiative, strikebreaker, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, zero-sum game

THE END OF HISTORY AND THE LAST MAN Francis Fukuyama FREE PRESS NEW YORK LONDON TORONTO SYDNEY FREE PRESS A Division of Simon & Schuster, Inc. 1230 Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10020 Copyright © 1992, 2006 by Francis Fukuyama All rights reserved, including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. First Free Press trade paperback edition 2006 FREE PRESS and colophon are trademarks of Simon & Schuster, Inc. For information about special discounts for bulk purchases, please contact Simon & Schuster Special Sales: 1-800-456-6798 or business@simonandschuster.com Manufactured in the United States of America 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 The Library of Congress has catalogued the hardcover edition as follows: Fukuyama, Francis.

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For information about special discounts for bulk purchases, please contact Simon & Schuster Special Sales: 1-800-456-6798 or business@simonandschuster.com Manufactured in the United States of America 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 The Library of Congress has catalogued the hardcover edition as follows: Fukuyama, Francis. The end of history and the last man / Francis Fukuyama p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. History—Philosophy. 2. World politics—1945-. I. Title. D16.8F85. 1992 91-29677 901—dc20 CIP ISBN-13: 978-0-743-28455-4 eISBN-13: 978-1-4165-3178-4 www.SimonandSchuster.com To Julia and David CONTENTS Acknowledgments By Way of an Introduction Part I AN OLD QUESTION ASKED ANEW 1 Our Pessimism 2 The Weakness of Strong States I 3 The Weakness of Strong States II, or, Eating Pineapples on the Moon 4 The Worldwide Liberal Revolution Part II THE OLD AGE OF MANKIND 5 An Idea for a Universal History 6 The Mechanism of Desire 7 No Barbarians at the Gates 8 Accumulation without End 9 The Victory of the VCR 10 In the Land of Education 11 The Former Question Answered 12 No Democracy without Democrats Part III THE STRUGGLE FOR RECOGNITION 13 In the Beginning, a Battle to the Death for Pure Prestige 14 The First Man 15 A Vacation in Bulgaria 16 The Beast with Red Cheeks 17 The Rise and Fall of Thymos 18 Lordship and Bondage 19 The Universal and Homogeneous State Part IV LEAPING OVER RHODES 20 The Coldest of All Cold Monsters 21 The Thymotic Origins of Work 22 Empires of Resentment, Empires of Deference 23 The Unreality of “Realism” 24 The Power of the Powerless 25 National Interests 26 Toward a Pacific Union Part V THE LAST MAN 27 In the Realm of Freedom 28 Men without Chests 29 Free and Unequal 30 Perfect Rights and Defective Duties 31 Immense Wars of the Spirit Afterword to the Second Paperback Edition of The End of History and the Last Man Notes Bibliography Index ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The “End of History” would never have existed, either as an article or as this present book, without the invitation to deliver a lecture by that title during the 1988-89 academic year, extended by Professors Nathan Tarcov and Allan Bloom of the John M.

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Nor can we in the final analysis know, provided a majority of the wagons eventually reach the same town, whether their occupants, having looked around a bit at their new surroundings, will not find them inadequate and set their eyes on a new and more distant journey. Afterword to the Second Paperback Edition of The End of History and the Last Man In the seventeen years that have passed since the original publication of my essay, “The End of History?”, my hypothesis has been criticized from every conceivable point of view. Publication of the second paperback edition of the book The End of History and the Last Man gives me an opportunity to restate the original argument, to answer what I regard as the most serious objections that were raised to it, and to reflect on some of the developments in world politics that have occurred since the summer of 1989.

They Don't Represent Us: Reclaiming Our Democracy by Lawrence Lessig

2013 Report for America's Infrastructure - American Society of Civil Engineers - 19 March 2013, Aaron Swartz, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, blockchain, Cambridge Analytica, Cass Sunstein, Columbine, crony capitalism, crowdsourcing, data science, David Brooks, disinformation, do-ocracy, Donald Trump, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Filter Bubble, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Free Software Foundation, Gabriella Coleman, illegal immigration, income inequality, Jaron Lanier, Jeff Bezos, John Gilmore, Joi Ito, Mark Zuckerberg, obamacare, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, Parag Khanna, plutocrats, race to the bottom, Ralph Nader, rent-seeking, Richard Thaler, Ronald Reagan, Sheryl Sandberg, Shoshana Zuboff, Silicon Valley, Skype, speech recognition, Steven Levy, surveillance capitalism, Upton Sinclair, Yochai Benkler

On remedies, see Frances Moore Lappé and Adam Eichen, Daring Democracy: Igniting Power, Meaning, and Connection for the America We Want (Boston: Beacon, 2017). 4.See, e.g., Achen and Bartels, Democracy for Realists. 5.Numbers drawn from Max Roser, “Democracy,” in Our World in Data (2016), available at link #7. For a slightly different reckoning, see Robert A. Dahl, On Democracy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998), 8. 6.Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?,” The National Interest 16 (Summer 1989): 6. 7.Steven Kull, “Voter Anger with Government and the 2016 Election: A Survey of American Voters,” Voice of the People, conducted by the Program for Public Consultation, School of Public Policy, University of Maryland (November 2016), available at link #8.

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Swing-state Democrats turn a blind eye to steel tariffs. Democrats generally don’t. Rather than a bias that runs in an obvious direction, the sum of these different inequalities bends consistently in no particular direction. This is not the physics of a plutocracy. It is the dynamic of a vetocracy—a “veto-ocracy,” as Francis Fukuyama puts it.129 As Fukuyama describes, the American Constitution already embeds many veto points for any substantial legislation. A law can be stopped in either house. A law can be slowed by the president. A law can be struck down by the courts. A president can refuse to enforce a law. All of these constitute the ways in which the constitutional system makes change difficult.

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Lacombe, Billionaires and Stealth Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018). 127.See Theda Skocpol and Vanessa Williamson, The Tea Party and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016). 128.Indeed, the median household income of the twenty smallest states is below the median household income of the top twenty. See Per Capita Wealth, available at link #79. 129.Francis Fukuyama, Political Order and Political Decay: From the Industrial Revolution to the Globalization of Democracy (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2014), chap. 34. 130.Van Reybrouck, Against Elections, xiii. 131.See the analysis by Ciara Torres-Spelliscy in “What Drives Climate Change Denial? Campaign Donations and Lobbying,” Brennan Center for Justice, September 19, 2017, available at link #80. 132.See Office of the Director of National Intelligence, “U.S.

Moneyland: Why Thieves and Crooks Now Rule the World and How to Take It Back by Oliver Bullough

Alan Greenspan, banking crisis, Bernie Madoff, bitcoin, blood diamond, Bretton Woods, Brexit referendum, BRICs, British Empire, capital controls, central bank independence, corporate governance, cryptocurrency, cuban missile crisis, dark matter, diversification, Donald Trump, energy security, failed state, financial engineering, Flash crash, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Global Witness, high net worth, if you see hoof prints, think horses—not zebras, income inequality, joint-stock company, land bank, liberal capitalism, liberal world order, mass immigration, medical malpractice, Navinder Sarao, offshore financial centre, plutocrats, Plutonomy: Buying Luxury, Explaining Global Imbalances, rent-seeking, Richard Feynman, risk tolerance, Sloane Ranger, sovereign wealth fund, Suez crisis 1956, WikiLeaks

In the summer of 1991, when hardliners in Moscow tried and failed to re-impose the old Soviet ways on their country, I was on a family holiday in the Scottish Highlands, where I spent days trying to coax the radio into cutting through the mountains to tell me what was going on. By the time our holiday was over, the coup had failed, and a new world was dawning. The previously sober historian Francis Fukuyama declared it to be the End of History. The whole world was going to be free. The Good Guys Had Won. I longed to see what was happening in Eastern Europe, and I read hundreds of books by those who had been there before me. While at university, I spent every long summer wandering through the previously forbidden countries of the old Warsaw Pact, revelling in Europe’s reunification.

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Much Western political thought envisages the liberal democracies of the ‘developed’ countries as the natural end point of a historical process, and refers to other societies as ‘developing’, as if they are trains on a track which will eventually deliver them to the terminal station where we now live. The political theorist Francis Fukuyama – who has given up on the idea that history has come to an end – argues in his 2011 book The Origins of Political Order that this is a damagingly wrong way of looking at the world. The liberal capitalism of Western Europe, the United States and the other Western countries is not only extremely unusual, but also just one of multiple kinds of government.

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It would take too long to list all the books I have read, but here is a brief summary of key texts used in researching different chapters, with suggestions for further reading. 1 – Aladdin’s Cave Mancur Olson’s theories on bandits are set out in Power and Prosperity: Outgrowing Communist and Capitalist Dictatorships (New York: Basic Books, 2000). I also found Francis Fukuyama’s The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2011; London: Profile Books, 2011) very helpful. Sarah Chayes lays out the connection between corruption and terrorism in unanswerable detail in Thieves of State: Why Corruption Threatens Global Security (New York and London: W.

Revolting!: How the Establishment Are Undermining Democracy and What They're Afraid Of by Mick Hume

anti-communist, battle of ideas, Berlin Wall, Boris Johnson, Brexit referendum, central bank independence, colonial rule, David Brooks, disinformation, Donald Trump, eurozone crisis, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Jeremy Corbyn, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, non-tariff barriers, Occupy movement, open borders, plutocrats, post-truth, public intellectual, Slavoj Žižek, the scientific method, We are the 99%, World Values Survey

Yet even after the fall of the Berlin Wall, there was little evidence of any renewed faith in democracy among the rulers of the Western world. In 1989 American author Francis Fukuyama’s ‘End of History’ thesis was hailed as a statement of the historic triumph of liberal democratic capitalism. Yet there was little real triumphalism in Fukuyama’s argument. He based his case rather on the fact that all the alternatives had been discredited and collapsed. It was hardly a statement of deep commitment to or faith in the democratic cause. Western democracy was the winner by default. When Fukuyama expanded his thesis into a 1992 book, the full title became The End of History and the Last Man. He was at least half-right; the West had won by being the last man standing.

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Hitler, Hitler’s Table Talk: 1941–44 (London, 1953), p. 497 39. www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/7805.H_L_Mencken 40. Beatrice Webb, My Apprenticeship (Cambridge University, revised edition, 1980), p. 173 41. Cited in Runciman, Confidence Trap, pp. 104, 106 42. Ibid., p. 306 43. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, 1992 (Penguin, 2012) 44. The Writings of the Young Karl Marx, Philosophical and Social, translated by L. Easton and K. Guddat (Garden City, NY, 1967), p. 206 Chapter 4: For Europe – against the EU 1. Miguel Herrero de Minon, ‘Europe’s Non-Existent Body Politic’, in de Minon and G.

The Return of Marco Polo's World: War, Strategy, and American Interests in the Twenty-First Century by Robert D. Kaplan

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Admiral Zheng, always be closing, California gold rush, collective bargaining, Deng Xiaoping, Donald Trump, Dr. Strangelove, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, friendly fire, Great Leap Forward, Haight Ashbury, high-speed rail, kremlinology, load shedding, mass immigration, megacity, military-industrial complex, no-fly zone, oil-for-food scandal, one-China policy, Parag Khanna, Pax Mongolica, Ronald Reagan, South China Sea, sovereign wealth fund, the long tail, trade route, Westphalian system, Yom Kippur War

Huntington disdains “rational-choice theory,” the reigning fad in political science, which assumes that human behavior is predictable but which fails to take account of fear, envy, hatred, self-sacrifice, and other human passions that are essential to an understanding of politics. In an age of academic operators he is an old-fashioned teacher who speculates historically and philosophically on the human condition. His former students include Francis Fukuyama, the author of the famous Post Cold War anthem The End of History and the Last Man (1992), and Fareed Zakaria, the former managing editor of Foreign Affairs and the current editor of Newsweek International. You aren’t likely to see Huntington on C-SPAN, let alone on The McLaughlin Group. He is a worse than indifferent public speaker: hunched over, reading laboriously from a text.

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In fact, Mearsheimer is best known in the academy for his equally controversial views on China, and particularly for his 2001 magnum opus, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. Writing in Foreign Affairs in 2010, the Columbia University professor Richard K. Betts called Tragedy one of the three great works of the Post Cold War era, along with Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History and the Last Man (1992) and Huntington’s The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (1996). And, Betts suggested, “once China’s power is full grown,” Mearsheimer’s book may pull ahead of the other two in terms of influence. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics truly defines Mearsheimer, as it does realism.

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Whatever the latest groupthink happens to be, Mearsheimer almost always instinctively wants to oppose it—especially if it emanates from Washington. The best grand theories tend to be written no earlier than middle age, when the writer has life experience and mistakes behind him to draw upon. Morgenthau’s 1948 classic, Politics Among Nations, was published when he was forty-four, Fukuyama’s The End of History was published as a book when he was forty, and Huntington’s Clash of Civilizations as a book when he was sixty-nine. Mearsheimer began writing The Tragedy of Great Power Politics when he was in his mid-forties, after working on it for a decade. Published just before 9/11, the book intimates the need for America to avoid strategic distractions and concentrate on confronting China.

Tomorrow's Capitalist: My Search for the Soul of Business by Alan Murray

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", "World Economic Forum" Davos, activist fund / activist shareholder / activist investor, Airbnb, Alan Greenspan, Alvin Toffler, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, Black Lives Matter, blockchain, Boris Johnson, call centre, carbon footprint, commoditize, coronavirus, corporate governance, corporate raider, corporate social responsibility, COVID-19, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, decarbonisation, digital divide, disinformation, disruptive innovation, do well by doing good, don't be evil, Donald Trump, Ferguson, Missouri, financial innovation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frederick Winslow Taylor, future of work, gentrification, George Floyd, global pandemic, Greta Thunberg, gun show loophole, impact investing, income inequality, intangible asset, invisible hand, Jeff Bezos, job automation, knowledge worker, lockdown, London Whale, low interest rates, Marc Benioff, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, means of production, minimum wage unemployment, natural language processing, new economy, old-boy network, price mechanism, profit maximization, remote working, risk-adjusted returns, Ronald Reagan, Salesforce, scientific management, shareholder value, side hustle, Silicon Valley, social distancing, Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, The Future of Employment, the payments system, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Tim Cook: Apple, Washington Consensus, women in the workforce, work culture , working poor, zero-sum game

One of the US cabinet secretaries asked him if he was considering a “third way” that blended capitalism and socialism. “There is no third way,” he responded without hesitation. “Capitalism has won.” Political scientist Francis Fukuyama went even further, writing a popular book called The End of History and the Last Man, in which he argued, “What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of postwar history, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.”6 To be sure, capitalism had earned its triumph.

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New York Times, September 13, 1970. 3. Milton Friedman. Capitalism and Freedom. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962. 4. Adam Smith. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. London: W. Strahan and T. Cadell, 1776. 5. Friedman, “A Friedman Doctrine.” 6. Francis Fukuyama. The End of History and the Last Man. New York: Free Press, 1992. 7. “For Larry Summers, Milton Friedman Was a Devil Figure in His Youth.” Mostly Economics, August 17, 2010. 8. Ibid. 9. TBR: Statement on Corporate Governance, September 1997. https://cdn.the conversation.com/static_files/files/693/Statement_on_Corporate_Governance_Business -Roundtable-1997%281%29.pdf?

The Net Delusion: The Dark Side of Internet Freedom by Evgeny Morozov

"World Economic Forum" Davos, A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace, Alvin Toffler, Ayatollah Khomeini, Berlin Wall, borderless world, Buckminster Fuller, Californian Ideology, Cass Sunstein, citizen journalism, cloud computing, cognitive dissonance, Columbine, computer age, conceptual framework, crowdsourcing, digital divide, disinformation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, don't be evil, Evgeny Morozov, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global village, Google Earth, Herbert Marcuse, illegal immigration, invention of radio, invention of the printing press, invisible hand, John Markoff, John Perry Barlow, John von Neumann, lolcat, Marshall McLuhan, Mitch Kapor, Naomi Klein, Network effects, new economy, New Urbanism, off-the-grid, Panopticon Jeremy Bentham, peer-to-peer, pirate software, pre–internet, Productivity paradox, public intellectual, RAND corporation, Robert Solow, Ronald Reagan, Ronald Reagan: Tear down this wall, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley startup, Sinatra Doctrine, Skype, Slavoj Žižek, social graph, Steve Jobs, Streisand effect, technological determinism, technoutopianism, TED Talk, The Wisdom of Crowds, urban planning, Washington Consensus, WikiLeaks, women in the workforce

Technology, with its unique ability to fuel consumerist zeal—itself seen as a threat to any authoritarian regime—as well as its prowess to awaken and mobilize the masses against their rulers, was thought to be the ultimate liberator. There is a good reason why one of the chapters in Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History and The Last Man, the ur-text of the early 1990s that successfully bridged the worlds of positive psychology and foreign affairs, was titled “The Victory of the VCR.” The ambiguity surrounding the end of the Cold War made such arguments look far more persuasive than any close examination of their theoretical strengths would warrant.

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“The communist bloc failed,” it said in a timely published study, “not primarily or even fundamentally because of its centrally controlled economic policies or its excessive military burdens, but because its closed societies were too long denied the fruits of the information revolution.” This view has proved remarkably sticky. As late as 2002, Francis Fukuyama, himself a RAND Corporation alumnus, would write that “totalitarian rule depended on a regime’s ability to maintain a monopoly over information, and once modern information technology made that impossible, the regime’s power was undermined.” By 1995 true believers in the power of information to crush authoritarianism were treated to a book-length treatise.

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Huxley feared that what we love will ruin us. This book is about the possibility that Huxley, not Orwell, was right,” is how Neil Postman chose to describe the theme of his best-selling Amusing Ourselves to Death. “[In contrast to Brave New World], the political predictions of ... 1984 were entirely wrong,” writes Francis Fukuyama in Our Posthuman Future. Maybe, but what many critics often fail to grasp is that both texts were written as sharp social critiques of contemporary problems rather than prophecies of the future. Orwell’s work was an attack on Stalinism and the stifling practices of the British censors, while Huxley’s was an attack on the then-popular philosophy of utilitarianism.

The Decadent Society: How We Became the Victims of Our Own Success by Ross Douthat

Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, AI winter, Apollo 13, Bernie Sanders, bitcoin, Black Lives Matter, Boeing 747, Burning Man, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carbon tax, centre right, Charlie Hebdo massacre, charter city, crack epidemic, CRISPR, crowdsourcing, David Graeber, Deng Xiaoping, deplatforming, Donald Trump, driverless car, East Village, Easter island, Elon Musk, fake news, Flynn Effect, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Francisco Pizarro, ghettoisation, gig economy, Golden age of television, green new deal, Haight Ashbury, helicopter parent, hive mind, Hyperloop, immigration reform, informal economy, intentional community, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Islamic Golden Age, Jeff Bezos, Jeremy Corbyn, Joan Didion, Kevin Kelly, Kickstarter, knowledge worker, life extension, low interest rates, mass immigration, mass incarceration, means of production, megacity, meritocracy, microaggression, move fast and break things, multiplanetary species, Neal Stephenson, Neil Armstrong, New Journalism, Nicholas Carr, Norman Mailer, obamacare, Oculus Rift, open borders, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, out of africa, Panopticon Jeremy Bentham, Paris climate accords, peak TV, Peter Thiel, plutocrats, pre–internet, private spaceflight, QAnon, quantitative easing, radical life extension, rent-seeking, Robert Bork, Robert Gordon, Ronald Reagan, secular stagnation, self-driving car, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley billionaire, Silicon Valley ideology, Snapchat, Snow Crash, Social Justice Warrior, social web, Steve Bannon, Steve Jobs, Steven Pinker, technoutopianism, TED Talk, the built environment, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, wage slave, WeWork, women in the workforce, Y2K

The vital culture makes a bricolage of classic stories; the decadent culture remakes the bricolage with a slightly different cast and a few plot beats swapped around. The vital culture creates fans de novo; the decadent culture performs “fan service.” The vital culture is a workshop; the decadent culture is a museum. Can the End of History End? One important prophet of this museum culture was Francis Fukuyama, whose end-of-the-Cold-War magnum opus, The End of History and the Last Man, anticipated some of the tedium and repetition I’ve described. The “end” that Fukuyama discerned, contrary to many subsequent smug dismissals of his thesis, was not an ending of events—an end to wars or calamities or economic setbacks.

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Since the 2008 financial crisis and the Great Recession exposed almost a decade’s worth of Western growth as an illusion, a diverse cast of economists and political scientists and other figures on both the left and the right have begun to talk about stagnation and repetition and complacency and sclerosis as defining features of this Western age: Tyler Cowen and Robert Gordon, Thomas Piketty and Francis Fukuyama, David Graeber and Peter Thiel, and many others. This book is, in part, an attempt to synthesize their various perspectives into a compelling account of our situation. But it also weaves the social sciences together with observations on our intellectual climate, our popular culture, our religious moment, our technological pastimes, in the hopes of painting a fuller portrait of our decadence than you can get just looking at political science papers on institutional decay or an economic analysis of the declining rate of growth.

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In the posthistorical period, there will be neither art nor philosophy, just the perpetual caretaking of the museum of human history.” And then: “Perhaps this very prospect of centuries of boredom at the end of history will serve to get history started once again.” So even Fukuyama didn’t imagine that his “end” would be eternal—and as a provisional description of the post-1989 world, the landscape that I’m calling decadent, his “end of history” label is a reasonable fit. Certainly much of the intellectual repetition and frustration described in this chapter feels like frustration at being unable to imagine something new, to discern “clear lines of advance,” in Barzun’s phrase, to escape the political and moral and even theological limits imposed by late-modern liberalism, to reclaim some lost arcadia or reach boldly for heaven or utopia.

The Virtue of Nationalism by Yoram Hazony

Berlin Wall, British Empire, conceptual framework, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, illegal immigration, invention of the printing press, Mahatma Gandhi, Peace of Westphalia, profit motive, Ronald Reagan, Steven Pinker, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, Torches of Freedom, urban planning, Westphalian system

On both sides of the Atlantic, the unpleasant history of past European and American imperialism prevented most from speaking openly of empire. What was repeated endlessly by elected officials, diplomats, businessmen, and media personalities—as well as in a profusion of utopian political tracts, from Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History and the Last Man (1992), to Thomas Friedman’s The Lexus and the Olive Tree (1999), to Shimon Peres’s The New Middle East (1995)—was that the “international community” was being brought under “global governance.” The world would have a single regime of law and a single economic system, governed by Americans and Europeans in accordance with liberal political doctrines.

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.… Like it or not, America today is Rome” (p. 244). As Tom Friedman put it, “The emerging global order needs an enforcer. That’s America’s new burden.” Thomas Friedman, “A Manifesto for a Fast World,” New York Times Magazine, March 28, 1999. See also Thomas Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree (New York: Picador, 1999), 465–468; Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992); and Shimon Peres, The New Middle East (New York: Henry Holt, 1995), among many other such works. 64. On the conservative (or “traditionalist”) school in English political theory, see Quinton, The Politics of Imperfection; J. G. A. Pocock, The Ancient Constitution and the Feudal Law (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987 ed.), esp. 30–55, 148–181; Harold J.

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As a result, almost all public discussion of these efforts was conducted in a murky newspeak riddled with euphemisms such as “new world order,” “ever-closer union,” “openness,” “globalization,” “global governance,” “pooled sovereignty,” “rules-based order,” “universal jurisdiction,” “international community,” “liberal internationalism,” “transnationalism,” “American leadership,” “American century,” “unipolar world,” “indispensable nation,” “hegemon,” “subsidiarity,” “play by the rules,” “the right side of history,” “the end of history,” and so on.6 All of this endured for a generation—until finally the meaning of these phrases began to become clear to a broad public, with the results that we see before us. Whether the outpouring of nationalist sentiment in Britain and America will, in the end, be for the best, remains to be seen.

The Autonomous Revolution: Reclaiming the Future We’ve Sold to Machines by William Davidow, Michael Malone

2013 Report for America's Infrastructure - American Society of Civil Engineers - 19 March 2013, agricultural Revolution, Airbnb, AlphaGo, American Society of Civil Engineers: Report Card, Automated Insights, autonomous vehicles, basic income, benefit corporation, bitcoin, blockchain, blue-collar work, Bob Noyce, business process, call centre, Cambridge Analytica, cashless society, citizen journalism, Clayton Christensen, collaborative consumption, collaborative economy, collective bargaining, creative destruction, crowdsourcing, cryptocurrency, deep learning, DeepMind, disintermediation, disruptive innovation, distributed ledger, en.wikipedia.org, Erik Brynjolfsson, fake news, Filter Bubble, Ford Model T, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, general purpose technology, Geoffrey West, Santa Fe Institute, gig economy, Gini coefficient, high-speed rail, holacracy, Hyperloop, income inequality, industrial robot, Internet of things, invention of agriculture, invention of movable type, invention of the printing press, invisible hand, Jane Jacobs, job automation, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John Maynard Keynes: technological unemployment, Joseph Schumpeter, license plate recognition, low interest rates, Lyft, Mark Zuckerberg, mass immigration, Network effects, new economy, peer-to-peer lending, QWERTY keyboard, ransomware, Richard Florida, Robert Gordon, robo advisor, Ronald Reagan, Second Machine Age, self-driving car, sharing economy, Shoshana Zuboff, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, Skinner box, Snapchat, speech recognition, streetcar suburb, Stuxnet, surveillance capitalism, synthetic biology, TaskRabbit, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, the scientific method, trade route, Turing test, two and twenty, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, universal basic income, uranium enrichment, urban planning, vertical integration, warehouse automation, zero day, zero-sum game, Zipcar

We can start by shutting off our phones at meals and sharing our beds with our partners rather than with texts and tweets. CHAPTER NINE THE BODY POLITIC Government in the Autonomous Revolution IN 1992, FRANCIS FUKUYAMA published his acclaimed book The End of History and the Last Man, which proclaimed that, with the fall of the USSR, government had completed its evolution. As he put it, civilization had arrived at “the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of liberal democracy as the final form of human government.”1 In the decades since, the rise of authoritarian regimes (roughly one nominally democratic country has reverted to tyranny every year for the last two decades) and the surge of right- and left-wing populism have cast a pall over Fukuyama’s optimistic vision.

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Gazzaley and Rosen, The Distracted Mind, 129. 58. Gloria Mark et al., “The Task Left Behind? Examining the Nature of Fragmented Work,” University of California, Irvine, April 2005, http://www.ics.uci.edu/%7Egmark/CHI2005.pdf (accessed June 27, 2019). Chapter Nine THE BODY POLITIC 1. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, reissue ed. (New York: Free Press, 2006). 2. “Homestead Act,” History.com, https://www.history.com/topics/homestead-act (accessed June 27, 2019). 3. Julian M. Alston, Jennifer S. James, Matthew A. Andersen, Philip G. Pardey, “A Brief History of US Agriculture,” in Persistence Pays: U.S.

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See also retail sector cybercrime and security, 132, 153–154 credit card, 74–76 cyber currencies, 78–80, 177–178 evolution of, 172–173 fake news classification as, 169–170 financial, 39–40, 75–76, 78–80, 171–172, 177–178 global effort needed for, 179 government response to, 172–176, 179 public utilities threat with, 173, 174 response rate relation to rate of, 171–172 Russia-based, 174 cyber currencies, 10, 83 blockchain technology of, 79, 80 electricity and miners involved with, 176 governance rules and systems, 176–178 government regulation needed for, 176–177 security with, 78–80, 177–178 as spatial equivalence, 16 cyber weapons, 16, 172–173, 174, 176 Daimler, Gottlieb, 53 Data and Goliath (Schneier), 127 Data Protection Directive, 129 data tracking/collection: advertising revenues’ role in, 89, 90, 120–123 algorithmic prisons with, 13, 114, 123–128 behavior manipulation in, 117, 121, 123 consumer protections against, 127–128 cookies’ role in, 89, 116, 117–118, 128 of credit rating agencies, 118–119 evolution and factors behind abuses of, 116–118 freemium business model role in, 121–123, 129–130 government agencies purchasing, 119, 131 information fiduciaries as protection for, 129–131 laws and regulations on, 128–130 liberty threats to and factors with, 13, 116–117, 123–128 privacy threat evolution with, 116–119 from social networking sites, 116, 118 transparency of, 127 Death and Life of Great American Cities, The (Jacobs), 109 Deep Blue, 46–47 delivery services, 102 democracy: authoritarianism threat to, 158–159 collective identity of citizens key to, 163, 166, 168 income inequality in relation to, 163–164 social media/networking threats to, 7, 18, 168–169 depression, 147–148, 166 Dichter, Ernest, 135 discrimination, 162–163, 165–166 displacement: business, 71, 72–73, 99 job, with job creation historically, 51–54, 106 job, without new job creation, 43, 51, 60–64, 98–99, 105–106 Distracted Minds (Gazzaley), 155 Echo, 119 economic policy and metrics: Depression-era, 67, 160 on monetizable productivity, 58–59 non-monetizable productivity in relation to, 52, 58–59, 66, 67, 68 unemployment rates in relation to, 106–107 “Economic Possibilities for Our Grandchildren” (Keynes), 187–189 economy: automation impacts on, 12–13 Autonomous, 60–61, 96–98 entrepreneurship, 110 gig, 7, 34, 63, 84, 85, 94 Second Economy contrasted with traditional, 97–98, 103 sharing, 70, 83–87, 100, 101–102 social empathy decline with decline of, 164–165 traditional compared to Autonomous, 96 elder care, 111 election tampering, 89, 167, 180, 186 electricity: cyber currency mining use of, 176 invention of, 29, 182 ELIZA, 46 Elsevier, Reed, 119 email, 60–61, 150 emotion detection technology, 115–116 empires, rise and fall of, 6–7, 24–25 End of History and the Last Man, The (Fukuyama), 158 Enlightenment, xii, 2, 22, 152 entrepreneurship, rates of, 110 Epic of Gilgamesh, The, 24, 183–184, 185 Equifax, 75–76, 118, 126, 130 Estonia, 174 ethnicity. See race and ethnicity European Union, 14, 128–129 expertise, impairment with, 2–3 Facebook, 43, 65, 70 addictive design elements of, 144 BAADD practices of, 88, 90, 91 content governance policies of, 168 cyber currency under, 10 emotion detection technology, 115 employee to user ratio for, 86, 105 evolution unpredictability of, 180 freemium business model profiting, 122–123 narcissistic personality proliferation on, 146–147 revenue, 150 Snapchat competition with, 91 usage decline, 154 facial recognition, 116 fake news, 18, 150, 168, 169–170 farming, 25, 152, 159, 160.

A Theory of the Drone by Gregoire Chamayou

drone strike, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Jeff Hawkins, junk bonds, military-industrial complex, moral hazard, Necker cube, operational security, Panopticon Jeremy Bentham, private military company, RAND corporation, Seymour Hersh, telepresence, Yom Kippur War

The military drone is a low-cost weapon—at least in comparison to classic fighter planes. That has long been one of the principal selling points for such a weapon. But of course the contradiction lies in the fact that it is in the nature of such a weapon to proliferate. What does Francis Fukuyama do after the end of history? In his leisure hours, he puts together little drones in his garage and then proudly exhibits them on his blog.14 He is part of an rapidly developing subculture: that of the homemade drone. Following in the footsteps of the model enthusiasts of the 1960s, there today exists a whole little community of amateurs who buy or construct drones at the cost of a few hundred dollars.

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To the principle of the nonexposure of lives at the scene of hostilities is added the principle of making the base of operations secure: “the US homeland must remain a secure base from which the Air Force can globally project power”—which means “ensuring the protection of US facilities and infrastructures used for power projection.” Steven M. Rinaldi, Donald H. Leathem, and Timothy Kaufman, “Protecting the Homeland Air Force: Roles in Homeland Security,” Aerospace Power Journal, Spring 2002, 83. 14. Francis Fukuyama, “Surveillance Drones, Take Two,” Democracy, Development, and the Rule of Law (blog), September 12, 2012, blogs.the-american-interest.com/fukuyama/2012/09/20/surveillance-drones-take-two. 15. See the Team BlackSheep video from November 30, 2010, on YouTube at www.youtube.com/watch?v=M9cSxEqKQ78 and the Team BlackSheep website at www.team-blacksheep.com. 16.

Bobos in Paradise: The New Upper Class and How They Got There by David Brooks

1960s counterculture, affirmative action, Community Supported Agriculture, David Brooks, Donald Trump, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, George Gilder, haute couture, haute cuisine, income inequality, Jane Jacobs, Jeff Bezos, Lewis Mumford, means of production, Mikhail Gorbachev, New Urbanism, Norman Mailer, PalmPilot, place-making, public intellectual, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Robert Bork, scientific management, Silicon Valley, The Bell Curve by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Thorstein Veblen, Upton Sinclair, upwardly mobile, urban planning, War on Poverty, Yogi Berra

Yale professor Paul Kennedy had a distinguished but unglamorous career under his belt when he wrote The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, predicting American decline. He was wrong, and hundreds of other commentators rose to say so, thus making him famous and turning his book into a bestseller. Francis Fukuyama wrote an essay called “The End of History,” which seemed wrong to people who read only the title. Thousands of essayists wrote pieces pointing out that history had not ended, and Fukuyama became a global sensation. After the article has appeared, the young intellectual will want to let the editor of the piece know what a massive impact the article is having at the White House/the Federal Reserve/the film industry or wherever its intended target is.

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But even in more traditional circles, when one sees people return to religious participation, one often gets the sense that it is the participation they go for as much as the religion. The New York Times Magazine recently ran a special issue on religion that included the astute headline “Religion Makes a Comeback (Belief to Follow).” Francis Fukuyama nicely captured the ethos of Bobo religiosity in his 1999 book, The Great Disruption: Instead of community arising as a byproduct of rigid belief, people will return to religious belief because of their desire for community. In other words, people will return to religious tradition not necessarily because they accept the truth of revelation, but precisely because the absence of community and the transience of social ties in the secular world makes them hungry for ritual and cultural tradition.

Evil Geniuses: The Unmaking of America: A Recent History by Kurt Andersen

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", "World Economic Forum" Davos, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, air traffic controllers' union, airline deregulation, airport security, Alan Greenspan, always be closing, American ideology, American Legislative Exchange Council, An Inconvenient Truth, anti-communist, Apple's 1984 Super Bowl advert, artificial general intelligence, autonomous vehicles, basic income, Bear Stearns, Bernie Sanders, blue-collar work, Bonfire of the Vanities, bonus culture, Burning Man, call centre, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carbon tax, Cass Sunstein, centre right, computer age, contact tracing, coronavirus, corporate governance, corporate raider, cotton gin, COVID-19, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, cryptocurrency, deep learning, DeepMind, deindustrialization, Donald Trump, Dr. Strangelove, Elon Musk, ending welfare as we know it, Erik Brynjolfsson, feminist movement, financial deregulation, financial innovation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, Future Shock, game design, General Motors Futurama, George Floyd, George Gilder, Gordon Gekko, greed is good, Herbert Marcuse, Herman Kahn, High speed trading, hive mind, income inequality, industrial robot, interchangeable parts, invisible hand, Isaac Newton, It's morning again in America, James Watt: steam engine, Jane Jacobs, Jaron Lanier, Jeff Bezos, jitney, Joan Didion, job automation, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John Maynard Keynes: technological unemployment, Joseph Schumpeter, junk bonds, Kevin Roose, knowledge worker, lockdown, low skilled workers, Lyft, Mark Zuckerberg, market bubble, mass immigration, mass incarceration, Menlo Park, Naomi Klein, new economy, Norbert Wiener, Norman Mailer, obamacare, Overton Window, Peter Thiel, Picturephone, plutocrats, post-industrial society, Powell Memorandum, pre–internet, public intellectual, Ralph Nader, Right to Buy, road to serfdom, Robert Bork, Robert Gordon, Robert Mercer, Ronald Reagan, Saturday Night Live, Seaside, Florida, Second Machine Age, shareholder value, Silicon Valley, social distancing, Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, Steve Jobs, Stewart Brand, stock buybacks, strikebreaker, tech billionaire, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, The Future of Employment, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Tim Cook: Apple, too big to fail, trickle-down economics, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, union organizing, universal basic income, Unsafe at Any Speed, urban planning, urban renewal, very high income, wage slave, Wall-E, War on Poverty, We are all Keynesians now, Whole Earth Catalog, winner-take-all economy, women in the workforce, working poor, young professional, éminence grise

As the millennium approached, invented-in-America political and economic freedom was triumphing globally and for good, because—in the words of an unknown Reagan State Department dweeb in 1989—we’d arrived at “the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.” Francis Fukuyama turned his essay into a bestselling and enormously influential book, The End of History, in 1992. It was a moment of supreme self-satisfaction for America’s educated upper middle class in particular. One of their own, a Rhodes Scholar who’d graduated from Yale Law School, was about to be elected president. As the Harvard political philosophy professor (and baby boom Rhodes Scholar) Michael Sandel puts it, “Meritocracies…produce morally unattractive attitudes among those who make it to the top.

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But that saying now has an alternative and nearly opposite meaning: the more that underlying structures change for real (technology, the political economy), the more the surfaces (style, entertainment) remain the same. In the early 1990s, Francis Fukuyama published his argument that all societies were inexorably arriving at the same evolutionary end point—the glorious finale of political economic history. Such folly. Yet in the arts and entertainment and style, what happened then, at the moment when both The End of History and the film Groundhog Day came out, does feel like an end of cultural history. Or at least, and I’m still hoping, an extremely long pause. So to recap: the national nostalgia reflex was triggered in the first place in the 1970s by fatigue from all the warp-drive cultural changes of the ’60s.

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And the Supreme Court’s Citizens United decision in 2010, the conservative majority’s view that “there’s no such thing as spending too much money to support a political candidate, because your money is actually speech—that’s all nonsense,” but as a result, apart from passing a constitutional amendment, “there isn’t anything the government can do [about regulating campaign finance] now.” Then there’s the remarkable apostasy of the neoconservative political economist and Reagan administration official Francis Fukuyama. The End of History and its celebration of the permanent global triumph of U.S.-style capitalism in the 1990s got him an endowed public policy professorship at George Mason University, the Koch academic headquarters, and although he moved on to Stanford, he remains conservative in some ways. But when he was asked recently what he thought of the apparent new U.S. vogue for social democracy, even socialism, he said, “It all depends on what you mean by socialism,” and then he went off.

The Rise and Fall of the Neoliberal Order: America and the World in the Free Market Era by Gary Gerstle

2021 United States Capitol attack, A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, air traffic controllers' union, Airbnb, Alan Greenspan, Alvin Toffler, anti-communist, AOL-Time Warner, Bear Stearns, behavioural economics, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, Black Lives Matter, blue-collar work, borderless world, Boris Johnson, Brexit referendum, British Empire, Broken windows theory, business cycle, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, Cass Sunstein, collective bargaining, Cornelius Vanderbilt, coronavirus, COVID-19, creative destruction, crony capitalism, cuban missile crisis, David Brooks, David Graeber, death from overwork, defund the police, deindustrialization, democratizing finance, Deng Xiaoping, desegregation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Donald Trump, Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test, European colonialism, Ferguson, Missouri, financial deregulation, financial engineering, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frederick Winslow Taylor, full employment, future of work, Future Shock, George Floyd, George Gilder, gig economy, Glass-Steagall Act, global supply chain, green new deal, Greenspan put, guns versus butter model, Haight Ashbury, Henry Ford's grandson gave labor union leader Walter Reuther a tour of the company’s new, automated factory…, Ida Tarbell, immigration reform, informal economy, invention of the printing press, invisible hand, It's morning again in America, Jeff Bezos, John Perry Barlow, Kevin Kelly, Kitchen Debate, low interest rates, Lyft, manufacturing employment, market fundamentalism, Martin Wolf, mass incarceration, Menlo Park, microaggression, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, millennium bug, Modern Monetary Theory, money market fund, Mont Pelerin Society, mortgage debt, mutually assured destruction, Naomi Klein, neoliberal agenda, new economy, New Journalism, Northern Rock, obamacare, Occupy movement, oil shock, open borders, Peter Thiel, Philip Mirowski, Powell Memorandum, precariat, price stability, public intellectual, Ralph Nader, Robert Bork, Ronald Reagan, scientific management, Seymour Hersh, sharing economy, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley ideology, Silicon Valley startup, social distancing, Steve Bannon, Steve Jobs, Stewart Brand, Strategic Defense Initiative, super pumped, technoutopianism, Telecommunications Act of 1996, The Bell Curve by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Chicago School, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, too big to fail, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, union organizing, urban decay, urban renewal, War on Poverty, Washington Consensus, We are all Keynesians now, We are the 99%, white flight, Whole Earth Catalog, WikiLeaks, women in the workforce, Works Progress Administration, Y2K, Yom Kippur War

Hacker, The Great Risk Shift: The New Economic Insecurity and the Decline of the American Dream (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006); Godfrey Hodgson, More Equal than Others; Steve Fraser, The Age of Acquiescence: The Life and Death of American Resistance to Organized Wealth and Power (New York: Little, Brown, 2015), chapter 12. 17.Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). This was an outgrowth of Fukuyama’s essay “The End of History?” published in National Interest 16 (Summer 1989), 3–18. 18.On decline of social democracy in Europe, see Tony Judt, Ill Fares the Land (New York: Penguin Books, 2010) and Judt, Postwar; Sheri Berman, The Primacy of Politics: Social Democracy and the Making of Europe’s Twentieth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006); James T.

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Moreover, many jobs had become much less secure than they had once been, with the portion of households suffering an income decline of 25 percent or more a year from job losses rising steadily across the decade.16 The decline of labor was not just evident in shrinking union membership rolls, erosion of political power, and increasing economic inequality. It was also evident in a decline in the very ability to imagine organizing a world on something other than capitalist principles. This was the point powerfully made by the social theorist and philosopher Francis Fukuyama in The End of History and the Last Man, the bestselling book he published in 1992. A fierce critic of communism, Fukuyama nevertheless respected the radicalism of communism’s critique of liberal democracy (the political system most conducive, Fukuyama argued, to capitalism’s flourishing) and the passions that it had long elicited among its supporters.

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Louis and the Violent History of the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2020). 52.Others in this group included the literary critic Allan Bloom; William J. Bennett, Reagan’s secretary of education; editor of Commentary magazine Norman Podhoretz; senator from New York Daniel Patrick Moynihan; and social theorist Francis Fukuyama. Social scientists Daniel Bell and Nathan Glazer hovered around its fringes, as did the historian and social critic Christopher Lasch. They were often grouped under the label “neoconservative.” For a sampling of their writing, see Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1976); Christopher Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations (New York: W.

The Dawn of Eurasia: On the Trail of the New World Order by Bruno Macaes

active measures, Berlin Wall, Brexit referendum, British Empire, computer vision, deep learning, Deng Xiaoping, different worldview, digital map, Donald Trump, energy security, European colonialism, eurozone crisis, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, gentrification, geopolitical risk, global value chain, illegal immigration, intermodal, iterative process, land reform, liberal world order, Malacca Straits, mass immigration, megacity, middle-income trap, open borders, Parag Khanna, savings glut, scientific worldview, Silicon Valley, South China Sea, speech recognition, Suez canal 1869, The Brussels Effect, trade liberalization, trade route, Transnistria, young professional, zero-sum game, éminence grise

Ironically, this would be the most despicable state of human history, when no further movement can be conceived, let alone attempted, when men and women entertain themselves to death in the belief that they have, at long last, discovered happiness. ‘One still works, but work is a pastime.’ Politics has disappeared: ‘Who still wants to rule? Who still wants to obey? Both are too burdensome.’ Mankind lives at the end of history when everything is as perfect as it can be and the whole past looks like a madhouse: ‘Formerly all the world was insane.’ In his extraordinarily popular book The End of History and the Last Man, Francis Fukuyama defended the argument that the desire to live in a modern society is universal and that a modern society assumes everywhere the form of a market economy and a democratic political system.

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Contemporary art had taught them that there is always a different way of seeing. Art must foresee other pictures, other worlds. Western modernity is for them just another form of tradition to be uprooted and overcome. When discussing world politics today, we often revert to one of two models. The first, popularized by Francis Fukuyama, sees the whole world converging to a European or Western political framework, after which no further historical development is possible. Every country or region is measured by the time it will still take to reach this final destination, but all doubts and debates about where we are heading have been fundamentally resolved.

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The view of Asian society was of a society that was backward, that had remained static since antiquity and that, left to itself, would always remain static. As Hegel was to argue, Europe was the end and destination of historical change, Asia the beginning. ‘The history of the world travels from East to West, for Europe is absolutely the end of history, Asia the beginning.’12 With China history begins, for it is the oldest empire and also, as Hegel puts it, the newest; a place where change is excluded ‘and the fixedness of a character which recurs perpetually takes the place of what we should call the truly historical’.13 As the contemporary Chinese political philosopher Wang Hui writes, this division had a number of distinctive traits: Asian political empires as opposed to European nations; agrarian and nomad social types in contrast to European urban societies; political despotism against developed legal systems and the pursuit of individual freedom.

The Wealth of Humans: Work, Power, and Status in the Twenty-First Century by Ryan Avent

3D printing, Airbnb, American energy revolution, assortative mating, autonomous vehicles, Bakken shale, barriers to entry, basic income, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, BRICs, business cycle, call centre, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, Clayton Christensen, cloud computing, collective bargaining, computer age, creative destruction, currency risk, dark matter, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, deindustrialization, dematerialisation, Deng Xiaoping, deskilling, disruptive innovation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Donald Trump, Downton Abbey, driverless car, Edward Glaeser, Erik Brynjolfsson, eurozone crisis, everywhere but in the productivity statistics, falling living standards, financial engineering, first square of the chessboard, first square of the chessboard / second half of the chessboard, Ford paid five dollars a day, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, general purpose technology, gig economy, global supply chain, global value chain, heat death of the universe, hydraulic fracturing, income inequality, independent contractor, indoor plumbing, industrial robot, intangible asset, interchangeable parts, Internet of things, inventory management, invisible hand, James Watt: steam engine, Jeff Bezos, Jeremy Corbyn, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, Joseph-Marie Jacquard, knowledge economy, low interest rates, low skilled workers, lump of labour, Lyft, machine translation, manufacturing employment, Marc Andreessen, mass immigration, means of production, new economy, performance metric, pets.com, post-work, price mechanism, quantitative easing, Ray Kurzweil, rent-seeking, reshoring, rising living standards, Robert Gordon, Robert Solow, Ronald Coase, savings glut, Second Machine Age, secular stagnation, self-driving car, sharing economy, Silicon Valley, single-payer health, software is eating the world, supply-chain management, supply-chain management software, tacit knowledge, TaskRabbit, tech billionaire, The Future of Employment, The Nature of the Firm, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, The Spirit Level, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, trade liberalization, transaction costs, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, Uber and Lyft, Uber for X, uber lyft, very high income, warehouse robotics, working-age population

Such a story had not, to my knowledge, been told at the time of writing.   6. ‘The Gifts of the Moguls’, The Economist, 4 July 2015. 11. The Politics of Labour Abundance   1. Yoshihiro Francis Fukuyama (1952–) is an American political scientist, political economist and author, known for his book The End of History and the Last Man (New York, NY: Free Press, 1992), which expanded on his 1989 essay, ‘The End of History’.   2. Schleicher, David, ‘Things Aren’t Going That Well Over There Either: Party Polarization and Election Law in Comparative Perspective’, University of Chicago Legal Forum, 18 November 2014.   3. 

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The period began, in the 1970s and 1980s, with a liberalizing impulse across a broad range of countries, from Britain and America to China and India. While Thatcher and Reagan cut tax rates and squashed unions, Deng Xiaopeng trod cautiously towards limited tolerance of markets and foreign trade. The era of consensus continued with the collapse of communism in Russia and Eastern Europe, which prompted Francis Fukuyama to muse that ‘the end of history’ had arrived with the global ascendance of liberal democracy.1 As global markets integrated, politics in most rich democracies coalesced around support for market-oriented economies, global openness and progressive social goals. It was a pleasant sort of era for the cosmopolitan, technocratic elite: the believers in the notion that markets, lightly tended, offered the best route to global prosperity and peace.

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., The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014) Ford, Martin, The Lights in the Tunnel: Automation, Accelerating Technology and the Economy of the Future (Createspace, 2009) _____, Rise of the Robots: Technology and the Threat of a Jobless Future (London: Oneworld Publications, 2015) Friedman, Milton, and Schwartz, Anna, A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963) Fukuyama, Francis, The End of History and the Last Man (The Free Press, 1992) Glaeser, Edward, Triumph of the City: How Our Greatest Invention Makes Us Richer, Smarter, Greener, Healthier, and Happier (London: Macmillan, 2011) Goldin, Claudia and Katz, Lawrence, The Race Between Education and Technology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008) Gordon, Robert, The Rise and Fall of American Growth: The U.S.

The Revolt of the Public and the Crisis of Authority in the New Millennium by Martin Gurri

Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Alan Greenspan, Albert Einstein, anti-communist, Arthur Eddington, Ayatollah Khomeini, bitcoin, Black Monday: stock market crash in 1987, Black Swan, Burning Man, business cycle, citizen journalism, Climategate, Climatic Research Unit, collective bargaining, creative destruction, crowdsourcing, currency manipulation / currency intervention, dark matter, David Graeber, death of newspapers, disinformation, Eddington experiment, en.wikipedia.org, Erik Brynjolfsson, facts on the ground, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frederick Winslow Taylor, full employment, Great Leap Forward, housing crisis, income inequality, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invention of writing, job-hopping, military-industrial complex, Mohammed Bouazizi, Nate Silver, Occupy movement, Port of Oakland, Republic of Letters, Ronald Reagan, scientific management, Skype, Steve Jobs, the scientific method, The Signal and the Noise by Nate Silver, too big to fail, traveling salesman, University of East Anglia, urban renewal, War on Poverty, We are the 99%, WikiLeaks, Yochai Benkler, young professional

With the fall of communism and implosion of the Soviet Union in 1991, no alternative system was left to oppose the democracies. They had triumphed with a completeness rarely seen in history. As early as 1989, Francis Fukuyama, in his famous essay “The End of History?”, could speculate about a world wholly dominated by the democratic ideology: What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, of the passing of a particular period of post-war history, but the end of history as such: that is, the endpoint of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government. This is not to say that there will no longer be events to fill the pages of Foreign Affairs’ yearly summaries of international relations, for the victory of liberalism has occurred primarily in the realm of ideas or consciousness and is as yet incomplete in the real or material world.

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[265] Robert Mackey, “For Egypt’s Rulers, Familiar Scapegoats,” New York Times, November 29, 2014, http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/11/29/for-egypts-new-rulers-familiar-scapegoats/. [266] Patrick Kingsley, “I’m no traitor, says Wael Ghonim as Egypt regime targets secular activists,” The Guardian, January 9, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/09/wael-ghonim-egypt-regime-targets-secular-activists. [267] Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” The National Interest, Summer 1989, http://www.kropfpolisci.com/exceptionalism.fukuyama.pdf. [268] Angelique Chrisafis, “François Hollande becomes most unpopular French president ever,” The Guardian, October 29, 2013, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/oct/29/francois-hollande-most-unpopular-president

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But there are powerful reasons for believing that it is the ideal that will govern the material world in the long run.[267] Following the horrors of 9/11, Fukuyama and his ideas were derided as triumphalist nonsense. But he was only half wrong. Fukuyama, a Hegelian, argued that Western democracy had run out of “contradictions”: that is, of ideological alternatives. That was true in 1989 and remains true today. Fukuyama’s mistake was to infer that the absence of contradictions meant the end of history. There was another possibility he failed to consider. History could well be driven by negation rather than contradiction. It could ride on the nihilistic rejection of the established order, regardless of alternatives or consequences. That would not be without precedent. The Roman Empire wasn’t overthrown by something called “feudalism” – it collapsed of its own dead weight, to the astonishment of friend and foe alike.

The Despot's Accomplice: How the West Is Aiding and Abetting the Decline of Democracy by Brian Klaas

Asian financial crisis, Ayatollah Khomeini, Berlin Wall, Boris Johnson, citizen journalism, clean water, crowdsourcing, cuban missile crisis, Deng Xiaoping, disinformation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Donald Trump, eurozone crisis, failed state, financial independence, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, friendly fire, global pandemic, Great Leap Forward, moral hazard, Ronald Reagan, selection bias, Seymour Hersh, Skype, Steve Jobs, trade route, Transnistria, Twitter Arab Spring, unemployed young men, Washington Consensus, zero-sum game

Even with heroic efforts to the contrary, digital information flows are difficult to stop— and knowledge and social coordination can be extremely powerful when it comes to standing up to despots. â•… But the corresponding backlash by authoritarian rulers, who also have learned a thing or two about digital communication, is undermining naïve predictions made across the Western world in the wake of the Arab Spring. Everyone seemed to think that it was only a matter of time before Twitter revolutions began toppling despots left and right. It was a return to the notion, initially articulated by Francis Fukuyama, that we had reached the democratic endpoint, the “End of History”4—but this time the end would be announced in 140 characters or fewer. There was even a movement to nominate Twitter for the Nobel Peace Prize.5 Yet as the grip of authoritarianism has tightened rather than loosened in the last decade, it has become clear that reports of despotism’s death at the hands of Twitter and Facebook have been greatly exaggerated. â•… Social media, information technology, and digital communication are incredibly powerful tools that scare despots—and rightly so.

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When it does not, it should fall by the wayside, as other overriding interests are deemed more important. This is the current approach. It has led us to a prolonged period of democratic stagnation and decline, giving despots the upper hand. Twenty-five years ago, Francis Fukuyama mistakenly argued that the world was nearing “The End of History,” wherein democracy would ultimately supplant despotism everywhere as the ideological dominance of democracy became uncontested. Instead, because of the West’s halfhearted approach to democracy promotion, despots have a growing number of defenders, and the West is far too often on the wrong side of “history.” â•… There is a third way forward: promote democracy consistently and more intelligently.

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‘Director Peter Jackson Wades into Turkish Debate over “Evil” Gollum’, The Telegraph, 3 December 2015, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/turkey/ 12030987/Lord-of-the-Rigns-director-Peter-Jackson-wades-into-RecepTayyip-Erdogan-Gollum-debate.html, last accessed 3 April 2016. 4.╇Fukuyama, Francis (1992). The End of History and the Last Man, New York: Free Press. 5.╇Khan, Urmee (2009). ‘Twitter Should Win Nobel Peace Prize, Says Former US Security Adviser,’ The Telegraph, 7 July 2009, http://www. telegraph.co.uk/technology/twitter/5768159/Twitter-should-winNobel-Peace-Prize-says-former-US-security-adviser.html, last accessed 3 April 2016. 6.╇Dobson, William J. (2012).

Radical Markets: Uprooting Capitalism and Democracy for a Just Society by Eric Posner, E. Weyl

3D printing, activist fund / activist shareholder / activist investor, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Airbnb, Amazon Mechanical Turk, anti-communist, augmented reality, basic income, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, Branko Milanovic, business process, buy and hold, carbon footprint, Cass Sunstein, Clayton Christensen, cloud computing, collective bargaining, commoditize, congestion pricing, Corn Laws, corporate governance, crowdsourcing, cryptocurrency, data science, deep learning, DeepMind, Donald Trump, Elon Musk, endowment effect, Erik Brynjolfsson, Ethereum, feminist movement, financial deregulation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, gamification, Garrett Hardin, George Akerlof, global macro, global supply chain, guest worker program, hydraulic fracturing, Hyperloop, illegal immigration, immigration reform, income inequality, income per capita, index fund, informal economy, information asymmetry, invisible hand, Jane Jacobs, Jaron Lanier, Jean Tirole, Jeremy Corbyn, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Arrow, labor-force participation, laissez-faire capitalism, Landlord’s Game, liberal capitalism, low skilled workers, Lyft, market bubble, market design, market friction, market fundamentalism, mass immigration, negative equity, Network effects, obamacare, offshore financial centre, open borders, Pareto efficiency, passive investing, patent troll, Paul Samuelson, performance metric, plutocrats, pre–internet, radical decentralization, random walk, randomized controlled trial, Ray Kurzweil, recommendation engine, rent-seeking, Richard Thaler, ride hailing / ride sharing, risk tolerance, road to serfdom, Robert Shiller, Ronald Coase, Rory Sutherland, search costs, Second Machine Age, second-price auction, self-driving car, shareholder value, sharing economy, Silicon Valley, Skype, special economic zone, spectrum auction, speech recognition, statistical model, stem cell, telepresence, Thales and the olive presses, Thales of Miletus, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, The Future of Employment, The Market for Lemons, The Nature of the Firm, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, The Theory of the Leisure Class by Thorstein Veblen, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thorstein Veblen, trade route, Tragedy of the Commons, transaction costs, trickle-down economics, Tyler Cowen, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, universal basic income, urban planning, Vanguard fund, vertical integration, women in the workforce, Zipcar

Glen Weyl, Surge Pricing Solves the Wild Goose Chase (2017), https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/ECabstract.pdf. 3. Janny Scott, After Three Days in the Spotlight, Nobel Prize Winner Is Dead, New York Times, October 12, 1996. Introduction. The Crisis of the Liberal Order 1. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (Free Press, 1992). 2. Marion Fourcade-Gourinchas & Sarah L. Babb, The Rebirth of the Liberal Creed: Paths to Neoliberalism in Four Countries, 108 American Journal of Sociology 533 (2002); Fourcade et al., The Superiority of Economists, 29 Journal of Economic Perspectives 89 (2015). 3.

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Saumitra Jha, Financial Asset Holdings and Political Attitudes: Evidence from Revolutionary England, 130 Quarterly Journal of Economics 1485 (2015); Markku Kaustia, Samuli Knüpfer, & Sami Torstila, Stock Ownership and Political Behavior: Evidence from Demutualizations, 62 Management Science 945 (2015). 71. Francis Fukuyama, Trust (Free Press, 1995); Paola Sapienza, Anna Toldra-Simats, & Luigi Zingales, Understanding Trust, 123 Economic Journal 1313 (2013). Chapter 2. Radical Democracy 1. Mogens Herman Hansen, The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes: Structure, Principles, and Ideology 6 (J. A. Crook, trans., Basil Blackwell, 1999). 2.

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—JOHN MAYNARD KEYNES, THE GENERAL THEORY OF EMPLOYMENT, INTEREST, AND MONEY, 1936 The Berlin Wall fell when one of us was just starting preschool and the other was beginning his career, that moment was crucial in shaping our political identities. The “American way”—free markets, popular sovereignty, and global integration—had vanquished the Soviet “evil empire.” Since then those values—which we will call the liberal order—have dominated intellectual discussions. Leading thinkers declared “the end of history.” The great social problems that had so long been the center of political drama had been solved.1 Both of us came of age intellectually in an unprecedented era of global intellectual consensus, confidence, and complacency. Nowhere was this atmosphere clearer than in the policy world in which we each ended up—one of us in law, the other in economics.

Can Democracy Work?: A Short History of a Radical Idea, From Ancient Athens to Our World by James Miller

Berlin Wall, Black Lives Matter, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, Cass Sunstein, classic study, colonial rule, cuban missile crisis, Daniel Kahneman / Amos Tversky, David Graeber, disinformation, Donald Trump, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, income inequality, Joseph Schumpeter, mass incarceration, means of production, Occupy movement, Plato's cave, public intellectual, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Republic of Letters, Steve Bannon, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, The Wisdom of Crowds, transatlantic slave trade, union organizing, upwardly mobile, Vilfredo Pareto

Yet with twists and turns, and despite some spectacular setbacks, the “great democratic revolution” that Tocqueville described indeed continued, sometimes flaring up with disturbing results, throughout the twentieth century and into the twenty-first. Tocqueville was one of the first in a long line of modern writers who have believed that democracy in some sense represented a logical culmination of human affairs: for Francis Fukuyama, writing in 1989, the year that jubilant Germans tore down the Berlin Wall, liberal democracy marked “the end of history,” with an American exclamation point. But history hasn’t evolved in quite the way that these theorists anticipated. Tocqueville expected democracy to produce greater equality—yet democratic states conjoined with market societies have recurrently produced growing inequality.

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Although Huntington briefly worked for Brzezinski when his old friend became national security adviser for the Democratic president Jimmy Carter in the late 1970s, he mainly focused his energies on teaching undergraduates at Harvard—and on episodically commenting in books and articles on the main currents of history as he perceived them. When the Soviet Union unexpectedly collapsed in 1989, and a renewed democratic spirit afterward led to mainly peaceful transitions to liberal democratic regimes in Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, Huntington saw no cause to celebrate. Where his student Francis Fukuyama perceived the apparent triumph of liberal democracy as the logical climax of world history, Huntington discerned the ascendance of new centers of political power in China and the Islamic world, both representing mature civilizations of great antiquity—and both offering religious and authoritarian alternatives to Western liberal ideals of human rights and representative democracy.

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Lawrence Krader (Assen, Netherlands: Van Gorcum, 1974). “to answer Sir Henry Maine’s ‘Popular Government’”: Woodrow Wilson to Horace Elisha Scudder, May [12], 1886, in The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 5:218. “Democracy in Europe,” he explains: Ibid., 5:69–70. In effect, Wilson puts America at the end of history, as Hegel put Prussia in his Philosophy of Right, and Marx put communism in his Manifesto. “It had not to overthrow other polities”: Wilson, “The Modern Democratic State,” Ibid., 5:67. Democracy “in its most modern sense”: Wilson, “The Modern Democratic State,” in The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 5:70.

The Coming of Neo-Feudalism: A Warning to the Global Middle Class by Joel Kotkin

"RICO laws" OR "Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations", "World Economic Forum" Davos, Admiral Zheng, Alvin Toffler, Andy Kessler, autonomous vehicles, basic income, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, bread and circuses, Brexit referendum, call centre, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carbon credits, carbon footprint, Cass Sunstein, clean water, company town, content marketing, Cornelius Vanderbilt, creative destruction, data science, deindustrialization, demographic transition, deplatforming, don't be evil, Donald Trump, driverless car, edge city, Elon Musk, European colonialism, Evgeny Morozov, financial independence, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Future Shock, gentrification, gig economy, Gini coefficient, Google bus, Great Leap Forward, green new deal, guest worker program, Hans Rosling, Herbert Marcuse, housing crisis, income inequality, informal economy, Jane Jacobs, Jaron Lanier, Jeff Bezos, Jeremy Corbyn, job automation, job polarisation, job satisfaction, Joseph Schumpeter, land reform, liberal capitalism, life extension, low skilled workers, Lyft, Marc Benioff, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, megacity, Michael Shellenberger, Nate Silver, new economy, New Urbanism, Northpointe / Correctional Offender Management Profiling for Alternative Sanctions, Occupy movement, Parag Khanna, Peter Thiel, plutocrats, post-industrial society, post-work, postindustrial economy, postnationalism / post nation state, precariat, profit motive, public intellectual, RAND corporation, Ray Kurzweil, rent control, Richard Florida, road to serfdom, Robert Gordon, Salesforce, Sam Altman, San Francisco homelessness, Satyajit Das, sharing economy, Sidewalk Labs, Silicon Valley, smart cities, Social Justice Warrior, Steve Jobs, Stewart Brand, superstar cities, technological determinism, Ted Nordhaus, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, The future is already here, The Future of Employment, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, Thomas L Friedman, too big to fail, trade route, Travis Kalanick, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, universal basic income, unpaid internship, upwardly mobile, Virgin Galactic, We are the 99%, Wolfgang Streeck, women in the workforce, work culture , working-age population, Y Combinator

Essays on a Failing System (New York: Verso, 2016), 219. 30 Phil Longman, The Empty Cradle: How Falling Birthrates Threaten World Prosperity (New York: New America Books, 2004); Joel Kotkin, “Death Spiral Demographics: The Countries Shrinking the Fastest,” Forbes, February 1, 2017, https://www.forbes.com/sites/joelkotkin/2017/02/01/death-spiral-demographics-the-countries-shrinking-the-fastest/#4ae48b38b83c. 31 Alex Gray, “The troubling charts that show young people losing faith in democracy,” World Economic Forum, December 1, 2016, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/12/charts-that-show-young-people-losing-faith-in-democracy/. 32 Amanda Taub, “How Stable Are Democracies? ‘Warning Signs Are Flashing Red,’” New York Times, November 29, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/29/world/americas/western-liberal-democracy.html?_r=0. 33 Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992), 12. 34 Emily Atkin, “Al Gore’s Carbon Footprint Doesn’t Matter,” New Republic, August 7, 2017, https://newrepublic.com/article/144199/al-gores-carbon-footprint-doesnt-matter; “How Electricity Became a Luxury Good,” Spiegel, September 4, 2013, http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/high-costs-and-errors-of-german-transition-to-renewable-energy-a-920288-2.html; Dagmara Stoerring, “Energy Poverty,” European Parliament, November 9, 2016, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2017/607350/IPOL_STU(2017)607350_EN.pdf. 35 Salena Zito and Brad Todd, The Great Revolt: Inside the Populist Coalition Reshaping American Politics (New York: Crown Forum, 2018), 3, 246. 36 Guilluy, Twilight of the Elites, 15; Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry, “The Failure of the French Elite,” Wall Street Journal, February 22, 2019, https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-failure-of-the-french-elite-11550851097?

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A strong supporter of the Beijing regime’s current climate policies, Brown even recommends the “brainwashing” of the uncomprehending masses, a concept very much congruent with the logic behind Chinese thought control.48 CHAPTER 21 Can We Challenge Neo-feudalism? The hope that we might see a global convergence toward democracy, as was once predicted by Francis Fukuyama and Thomas Friedman among others, seems increasingly remote. As China has grown both richer and more powerful, it has not become more like us, but instead has developed an authoritarian form of state capitalism.1 Globally, democratic governance appears to have peaked in 2006, and many countries—including Turkey, Russia, and China—have become far more authoritarian.

How to Stop Brexit (And Make Britain Great Again) by Nick Clegg

Berlin Wall, Boris Johnson, Brexit referendum, collapse of Lehman Brothers, Dominic Cummings, Donald Trump, eurozone crisis, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Jeremy Corbyn, low interest rates, offshore financial centre, sceptred isle, Snapchat, Steve Bannon

The reasons behind the recent run of election results require extensive analysis, but it is clear that the shock of Brexit, followed by Trump’s victory, inspired liberal-minded, internationalist, pro-European politicians to come out of their shells and make their arguments with renewed passion. They can no longer close their eyes and pretend there is no populist threat. They can no longer assume that we have reached, as the political scientist Francis Fukuyama famously stated, the end of history. Instead they have had to take their message to voters – many of whom are unhappy with the status quo – with fresh arguments and a promise to listen and reform. Europe has been shocked into action and is determined to … well, make Europe great again. The Times is often credited with a headline that, sadly, never actually appeared.

The Glass Half-Empty: Debunking the Myth of Progress in the Twenty-First Century by Rodrigo Aguilera

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", "World Economic Forum" Davos, activist fund / activist shareholder / activist investor, Alan Greenspan, Anthropocene, availability heuristic, barriers to entry, basic income, benefit corporation, Berlin Wall, Bernie Madoff, Bernie Sanders, bitcoin, Boris Johnson, Branko Milanovic, Bretton Woods, Brexit referendum, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, capitalist realism, carbon footprint, Carmen Reinhart, centre right, clean water, cognitive bias, collapse of Lehman Brothers, Colonization of Mars, computer age, Corn Laws, corporate governance, corporate raider, creative destruction, cryptocurrency, cuban missile crisis, David Graeber, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, death from overwork, decarbonisation, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, Doha Development Round, don't be evil, Donald Trump, Doomsday Clock, Dunning–Kruger effect, Elon Musk, European colonialism, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, first-past-the-post, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, fundamental attribution error, gig economy, Gini coefficient, Glass-Steagall Act, Great Leap Forward, green new deal, Hans Rosling, housing crisis, income inequality, income per capita, index fund, intangible asset, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invisible hand, Jean Tirole, Jeff Bezos, Jeremy Corbyn, Jevons paradox, job automation, job satisfaction, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, karōshi / gwarosa / guolaosi, Kenneth Rogoff, Kickstarter, lake wobegon effect, land value tax, Landlord’s Game, late capitalism, liberal capitalism, long peace, loss aversion, low interest rates, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, means of production, meta-analysis, military-industrial complex, Mont Pelerin Society, moral hazard, moral panic, neoliberal agenda, Network effects, North Sea oil, Northern Rock, offshore financial centre, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, Overton Window, Pareto efficiency, passive investing, Peter Thiel, plutocrats, principal–agent problem, profit motive, public intellectual, purchasing power parity, race to the bottom, rent-seeking, risk tolerance, road to serfdom, Robert Shiller, Robert Solow, savings glut, Scientific racism, secular stagnation, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley ideology, Slavoj Žižek, Social Justice Warrior, Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, sovereign wealth fund, Stanislav Petrov, Steven Pinker, structural adjustment programs, surveillance capitalism, tail risk, tech bro, TED Talk, The Spirit Level, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, too big to fail, trade liberalization, transatlantic slave trade, trolley problem, unbiased observer, universal basic income, Vilfredo Pareto, Washington Consensus, Winter of Discontent, Y2K, young professional, zero-sum game

But it made a comeback after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the swift implosion of the Soviet Union and the communist bloc over the next two years. Nothing exemplified the supreme victory of Western ideals in almost all spheres of life better than US political scientist Francis Fukuyama’s seminal 1989 essay “The End of History”, best known for its bold forecast about the future of humanity: What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of post-war history, but the end of history as such … That is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.5 It is certainly true that doomsday predictions like Malthusian overpopulation and Y2K have a terrible track record.

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There is little scope for naivety or pessimism — the movement largely discounts the tremendously complex issues that could arise from such selective augmentation of our natural capabilities, whereas critics understandably find the possibilities terrifying. Notably, transhumanism was listed as one of the world’s eight “most dangerous ideas” in a 2004 special report by Foreign Policy magazine. Perhaps surprisingly, the author of the scathing piece was Francis Fukuyama who took particular issue with its disregard for what the existence of a superior class of human being would mean in terms of citizenship and equality in democratic societies: If we start transforming ourselves into something superior, what rights will these enhanced creatures claim, and what rights will they possess when compared to those left behind?

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Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd CONTENTS Introduction: A New Secular Religion Part I: Optimism and Its Discontents Chapter One: Mad World Chapter Two: Getting Better Chapter Three: Twenty-First Century Breakdown Part II: Progress and the Crisis of Liberalism Chapter Four: Masters of Puppets Chapter Five: The Big Money Chapter Six: And Justice for All Part III: The End of the End of History Chapter Seven: The Evil That Men Do Chapter Eight: Renegades of Thought Chapter Nine: Built for the Future Epilogue: Winds of Change A Note on Data Sources Notes Acknowledgements To my mother and aunt “We don’t throw virgins into volcanoes anymore.” — Steven Pinker INTRO: A NEW SECULAR RELIGION A Necessary Inquiry If one could think of the worst possible year to write a book that was critical of human progress, that year would be 1991. This was year zero of the “end of history”, when the collapse of the Soviet Union removed the last challenge to the dominance of Western liberal democracy and capitalism.

Culture works: the political economy of culture by Richard Maxwell

1960s counterculture, accelerated depreciation, American ideology, AOL-Time Warner, Apple's 1984 Super Bowl advert, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, big-box store, business process, commoditize, corporate governance, cuban missile crisis, deindustrialization, digital capitalism, digital divide, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Ford Model T, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global village, Howard Rheingold, income inequality, informal economy, intermodal, late capitalism, Marshall McLuhan, medical malpractice, Neil Armstrong, Network effects, post-Fordism, profit maximization, Ralph Nader, refrigerator car, Ronald Reagan, Silicon Valley, streetcar suburb, structural adjustment programs, talking drums, telemarketer, the built environment, the Cathedral and the Bazaar, Thorstein Veblen, Unsafe at Any Speed, urban renewal, vertical integration, Victor Gruen, Whole Earth Catalog, women in the workforce, work culture

“The ratings were so high that NBC will take the same tack into Sydney and beyond.”143 Coda In corporate/Americanized sport, the game has become somewhat less important than its capacity to be a vehicle presenting particular messages to a particular select and often massive audience.144 This discussion may have unearthed some disheartening revelations pertaining to the political economy of contemporary sport culture. Elsewhere I have argued that sport has, in Francis Fukuyama’s terms, reached the end of history precipitated by the “total exhaustion of viable systematic alternatives”145 to the sport-media-entertainment complex discussed here.146 On reflection, this sentiment intimates a resigned bitterness that adds little to the critical analysis of contemporary sport. Without question, the global sport economy is dominated by brazenly commercial enterprises that make no pretense as to the cardinal importance of delivering entertaining products designed to maximize profit margins.

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Mica Nava, Andrew Blake, Iain MacRury, and Barry Richards (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), 87–102. 161 David L. A n d r e w s 142. Gunther, “Get Ready for the Oprah Olympics,” 42. 143. Knisley, “Rock Solid,” S6. 144. P. Donnelly, “The Local and the Global: Globalization in the Sociology of Sport,” Journal of Sport and Social Issues 20:3 (1996): 246. 145. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” National Interest 16 (1989): 3. 146. Andrews, “Dead and Alive?” 147. L. Grossberg, We Gotta Get out of This Place: Popular Conservatism and Postmodern Culture (London: Routledge, 1992), 21. 162 Chapter Seven Shopping Susan G. Davis The opportunity and imperative to shop are everywhere.

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., For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990). Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century, 25th ed. (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1998), 279. T. Miller and A. McHoul, Popular Culture and Everyday Life (London: Sage, 1998), 61. S. Hardy, “Where Did You Go, Jackie Robinson? Or the End of History and the Age of Sport Infrastructure,” Sporting Traditions: Journal of the Australian Society for Sports History 16:1 (1999): 85–100. Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1991), 48. This apt metaphor is borrowed from Jürgen Habermas, “Conservatism and Capitalist Crisis,” New Left Review 115 (1979): 73–84.

Capitalism, Alone: The Future of the System That Rules the World by Branko Milanovic

affirmative action, Asian financial crisis, assortative mating, barriers to entry, basic income, Berlin Wall, bilateral investment treaty, Black Swan, Branko Milanovic, capital controls, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carried interest, colonial rule, corporate governance, creative destruction, crony capitalism, deindustrialization, dematerialisation, Deng Xiaoping, discovery of the americas, European colonialism, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial deregulation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, ghettoisation, gig economy, Gini coefficient, global supply chain, global value chain, Great Leap Forward, high net worth, household responsibility system, income inequality, income per capita, invention of the wheel, invisible hand, job automation, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, Joseph Schumpeter, labor-force participation, laissez-faire capitalism, land reform, liberal capitalism, low skilled workers, Lyft, means of production, new economy, offshore financial centre, Paul Samuelson, plutocrats, post-materialism, purchasing power parity, remote working, rent-seeking, ride hailing / ride sharing, Robert Solow, Silicon Valley, single-payer health, special economic zone, Tax Reform Act of 1986, The Theory of the Leisure Class by Thorstein Veblen, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thorstein Veblen, uber lyft, universal basic income, Vilfredo Pareto, Washington Consensus, women in the workforce, working-age population, Xiaogang Anhui farmers

It would seem absurd to Marxists, as well as to pretty much everyone else, that such a development could happen. But the “fall” of communism back to capitalism is equally absurd, and cannot be explained within the traditional Marxist framework. It can be explained better, albeit not fully, within the liberal framework. In the liberal view, which Francis Fukuyama captured quite well in the 1990s with The End of History and the Last Man, liberal democracy and laissez-faire capitalism represent the terminus of socioeconomic formations invented by humankind. What Marxists see as an incomprehensible reversal to a much lower (inferior) system, liberals see as a perfectly understandable movement from an inferior, dead-end system (communism) back onto the straight path leading to the end point of human evolution: liberal capitalism.

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Debin Ma reprises a similar theme in his paper on the fiscal capacity of the Chinese state: “In China, the precocious rise of absolutism [centralized state based on hierarchically organized bureaucracy] with the absence of any representative institution ensured that the economic rents from the control of violence were firmly in the hands of political interest divorced from those of commercial and property interest” (2011, 26–27). It was surely not a government at the behest of the bourgeoisie. Francis Fukuyama, in The Origins of Political Order (2011), explains the absence of a countervailing merchant class in China by the omnipotence of the state, which goes back to the formation of the Chinese state. Fukuyama argues that China was ahead of every other major power in building the state; it did so also before any other organized nonstate actors (independent bourgeoisie, free cities, clergy) were created.

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Washington, DC: Peterson Institute for International Economics. Freund, Caroline, and Sarah Oliver. 2016. “The Origins of the Superrich: The Billionaire Characteristics Database.” PIIE Working Paper 16-1, Peterson Institute for International Economics, February. https://piie.com/system/files/documents/wp16-1.pdf. Fukuyama, Francis. 1992. The End of History and the Last Man. New York: Free Press. Fukuyama, Francis. 2011. The Origins of Political Order. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Gabriel, Satyananda J. 2006. Chinese Capitalism and the Modernist Vision. London: Routledge. Gernet, Jacques. 1962. Daily Life in China on the Eve of Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276.

The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union by Serhii Plokhy

affirmative action, Anton Chekhov, Berlin Wall, bilateral investment treaty, Boeing 747, cuban missile crisis, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Korean Air Lines Flight 007, land reform, language acquisition, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, mutually assured destruction, Potemkin village, RAND corporation, Ronald Reagan, Seymour Hersh, Sinatra Doctrine, Stanislav Petrov, Strategic Defense Initiative, Transnistria

Boris Yeltsin, The Struggle for Russia, trans. Catherine A. Fitzpatrick (New York, 1994), 116; Gorbachev, Memoirs, 658; interview with Valentin Varennikov in Rozpad Radians’koho Soiuzu. Usna istoriia nezalezhnoï Ukraïny 1988–91, tape 2, http://oralhistory.org.ua/interview-ua/401/. 13. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History,” National Interest, Summer 1989; Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York, 1992). 14. George Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 (New York, 2008), 914; C. J. Chivers, “Russia Will Pursue Democracy, but in Its Own Way, Putin Says,” New York Times, April 26, 2005. 15.

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While losing the battle to save the Soviet Union as a junior partner in the international arena, the Bush administration helped orchestrate its peaceful dissolution. This was no small accomplishment, especially if one thinks of the bloody ends of other empires. On a certain level, history had indeed come to an end—not in the sense of a final victory of liberalism, as declared by the leading American political scientist Francis Fukuyama in his best-selling book The End of History and the Last Man (1990), but in the disappearance of the old European empires. The United States, born of rebellion against an empire and an archenemy of colonialism throughout the world, unexpectedly found itself presiding over the dissolution of a country often labeled the last world empire.

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., 331 Egypt, 231 Electoral democracy demonstrations for, 139–143, 202 imperial rule incompatible with, xviii, 13–14, 33, 394 in Russia, xviii, 112 Electoral system, reform of, 29, 33, 35, 56 Elena (Yeltsin’s elder daughter), 100 Elliott, Iain, 118 Empires Soviet Union as last, xvii–xviii, xx–xxii, 34, 40, 178, 182, 185–186, 393 world, xviii, xix, 6, 33, 393, 402 The End of History and the Last Man (Fukuyama), 405 Estonia, 45, 191 annexation of, 192 population, 244 sovereignty and, 174, 175, 195, 197 Ethnic clashes between Azeris and Armenians, 33–34, 213, 357, 361 in Kazakhstan, 349–352 See also specific ethnic groups Ethnicity minorities in Ukraine, 283–286 nationality and mixed, 288–289 EU.

Owning the Earth: The Transforming History of Land Ownership by Andro Linklater

agricultural Revolution, Alan Greenspan, anti-communist, Anton Chekhov, Ayatollah Khomeini, Bear Stearns, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, British Empire, business cycle, colonial rule, Corn Laws, Cornelius Vanderbilt, corporate governance, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, crony capitalism, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, electricity market, facts on the ground, flying shuttle, Ford Model T, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Gini coefficient, Glass-Steagall Act, Google Earth, Great Leap Forward, income inequality, invisible hand, James Hargreaves, James Watt: steam engine, John Perry Barlow, joint-stock company, joint-stock limited liability company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kibera, Kickstarter, land reform, land tenure, light touch regulation, market clearing, means of production, megacity, Mikhail Gorbachev, Mohammed Bouazizi, Monkeys Reject Unequal Pay, mortgage debt, Northern Rock, Peace of Westphalia, Pearl River Delta, plutocrats, Ponzi scheme, profit motive, quantitative easing, Ralph Waldo Emerson, refrigerator car, Right to Buy, road to serfdom, Robert Shiller, Ronald Reagan, spinning jenny, Suez canal 1869, The Chicago School, The Theory of the Leisure Class by Thorstein Veblen, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, Thorstein Veblen, three-masted sailing ship, too big to fail, trade route, transatlantic slave trade, transcontinental railway, ultimatum game, wage slave, WikiLeaks, wikimedia commons, working poor

The collapse of Communism in the Soviet Union in 1989, and the growing strength of China’s market economy, made it appear that one economic system now circled the world. Soaring on the wings of hubris, Thomas Friedman named his popular book on the globalized economy The World is Flat, while Francis Fukuyama updated Walt Rostow’s development strategy and, in a scholarly article that assumed universal capitalism must lead to universal democracy, predicted “The End of History.” Absent from the writings of either author and from the published deliberations of the Federal Reserve and the Bank of England, of governments on either side of the Atlantic, of most of Wall Street and the City of London, and an array of international financial experts, was any suggestion that they understood that the phenomenon of globalization grew out of the disparity between two ways of owning the earth.

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almost six hundred trillion dollars: The figure from the Bank for International Settlements for the last quarter of 2007, $596 trillion. the number of politically free countries: Figures for 2007 from Freedom House, “Freedom in the World,” 2008. the 1992 paper he cited: Professor Fukuyama’s assertion of a “strong correlation” between industrial development and democracy is made in “Reflections on the End of History, Five Years Later” by Francis Fukuyama, History and Theory 34, no. 2, Theme Issue 34: World Historians and Their Critics (May, 1995), 27–43. The paper he refers to is by Larry Diamond, “Economic Development and Democracy Reconsidered,” American Behavioral Scientist 15 (March–June 1992), 450–499. “free and equal in dignity and rights”: Compared to the painstaking arguments that backed the assertion to natural rights in property and to the pursuit of happiness, the United Nations’ assertion of its human rights is strangely bare.

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During the thirty-year experiment, a transformation had taken place in other societies as they became linked to the globalized economy. In that period, the number of politically free countries, according to the index of democracy compiled by Freedom House, rose from forty-three to eighty-seven, home to three billion inhabitants or 43 percent of the global population. For “development” commentators, such as Professor Francis Fukuyama, this was cause and effect, the result of “an extraordinarily strong correlation between high levels of industrial development and stable democracy.” But, as Fukuyama ought to have been aware, the 1992 paper he cited as evidence gave no more than the shakiest support for his belief that industrial development led to democracy.

The Raging 2020s: Companies, Countries, People - and the Fight for Our Future by Alec Ross

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", "World Economic Forum" Davos, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, air gap, air traffic controllers' union, Airbnb, Albert Einstein, An Inconvenient Truth, autonomous vehicles, barriers to entry, benefit corporation, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, big-box store, British Empire, call centre, capital controls, clean water, collective bargaining, computer vision, coronavirus, corporate governance, corporate raider, COVID-19, deep learning, Deng Xiaoping, Didi Chuxing, disinformation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Donald Trump, Double Irish / Dutch Sandwich, drone strike, dumpster diving, employer provided health coverage, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, general purpose technology, gig economy, Gini coefficient, global supply chain, Goldman Sachs: Vampire Squid, Gordon Gekko, greed is good, high-speed rail, hiring and firing, income inequality, independent contractor, information security, intangible asset, invisible hand, Jeff Bezos, knowledge worker, late capitalism, low skilled workers, Lyft, Marc Andreessen, Marc Benioff, mass immigration, megacity, military-industrial complex, minimum wage unemployment, mittelstand, mortgage tax deduction, natural language processing, Oculus Rift, off-the-grid, offshore financial centre, open economy, OpenAI, Parag Khanna, Paris climate accords, profit motive, race to the bottom, RAND corporation, ride hailing / ride sharing, Robert Bork, rolodex, Ronald Reagan, Salesforce, self-driving car, shareholder value, side hustle, side project, Silicon Valley, smart cities, Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, sovereign wealth fund, sparse data, special economic zone, Steven Levy, stock buybacks, strikebreaker, TaskRabbit, tech bro, tech worker, transcontinental railway, transfer pricing, Travis Kalanick, trickle-down economics, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, union organizing, Upton Sinclair, vertical integration, working poor

Today, Democrats and Republicans disagree not just on taxes, but also on climate change, health care, immigration, foreign policy, economic regulation, and nearly every issue in between. Over the last decade, we have seen each party obstruct the other, preventing meaningful legislation on these issues from passing. To describe this reality, where obstruction becomes the dominant mode of governance, political scientist Francis Fukuyama coined the term vetocracy. “The delegation of powers to different political actors enables them to block action by the whole body. The U.S. political system has far more of these checks and balances, or what political scientists call ‘veto points,’ than other contemporary democracies, raising the costs of collective action and in some cases make it impossible altogether,” Fukuyama wrote.

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Not one of the 237 Democrats: “Republicans Pass Historic Tax Cuts without a Single Democratic Vote,” Axios, December 20, 2017, https://www.axios.com/republicans-pass-historic-tax-cuts-without-a-single-democratic-vote-1515110718-8cdf005c-c1c9-481a-975b-72336765ebe4.html. obstruct the other: Ezra Klein, “Why We Can’t Build,” Vox, April 22, 2020, https://www.vox.com/2020/4/22/21228469/marc-andreessen-build-government-coronavirus. “The delegation of powers to different political actors”: Francis Fukuyama, “America in Decay,” Foreign Affairs, Sept./Oct. 2014, http://cf.linnbenton.edu/artcom/social_science/clarkd/upload/Fukuyama,%20America%20in%20Decay.pdf. “For any particular problem we have”: Steven M. Teles, Kludgeocracy: The American Way of Policy (Washington, DC: New America Foundation, 2012), https://static.newamerica.org/attachments/4209-kludgeocracy-the-american-way-of-policy/Teles_Steven_Kludgeocracy_NAF_Dec2012.d8a805aa40e34bca9e2fecb018a3dcb0.pdf.

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American consumers drove Chevys, drank Budweiser, and smoked Marlboros. Their Soviet counterparts drove Ladas, drank Zhigulevskoye, and smoked Belomorkanals. When the Cold War ended, however, the rules that had held for centuries started to change rapidly. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, capitalism became the triumphant economic model. In the “end of history” euphoria, the United States, United Kingdom, and other Western democracies rolled back many of the financial and legal guardrails that tethered businesses to the government. They simultaneously set out to build the infrastructure for a global economy based on free-market capitalism. The European Union was created in 1993, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) went into effect in 1994, and the World Trade Organization kicked off its operations in 1995.

21 Lessons for the 21st Century by Yuval Noah Harari

"World Economic Forum" Davos, 1960s counterculture, accounting loophole / creative accounting, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, agricultural Revolution, algorithmic trading, augmented reality, autonomous vehicles, Ayatollah Khomeini, basic income, behavioural economics, Bernie Sanders, bitcoin, blockchain, Boris Johnson, Brexit referendum, call centre, Cambridge Analytica, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carbon tax, carbon-based life, Charlie Hebdo massacre, cognitive dissonance, computer age, computer vision, cryptocurrency, cuban missile crisis, decarbonisation, DeepMind, deglobalization, disinformation, Donald Trump, Dr. Strangelove, failed state, fake news, Filter Bubble, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Freestyle chess, gig economy, glass ceiling, Google Glasses, illegal immigration, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Internet of things, invisible hand, job automation, knowledge economy, liberation theology, Louis Pasteur, low skilled workers, Mahatma Gandhi, Mark Zuckerberg, mass immigration, means of production, Menlo Park, meta-analysis, Mohammed Bouazizi, mutually assured destruction, Naomi Klein, obamacare, pattern recognition, post-truth, post-work, purchasing power parity, race to the bottom, RAND corporation, restrictive zoning, Ronald Reagan, Rosa Parks, Scramble for Africa, self-driving car, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley startup, TED Talk, transatlantic slave trade, trolley problem, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, universal basic income, uranium enrichment, Watson beat the top human players on Jeopardy!, zero-sum game

For a general discussion see for example: Nicholas John Cull, Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2003). 6 For this interpretation see: Ishaan Tharoor, ‘Brexit: A modern-day Peasants’ Revolt?’, Washington Post, 25 June 2016; John Curtice, ‘US election 2016: The Trump–Brexit voter revolt’, BBC, 11 November 2016. 7 The most famous of these remains, of course, Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (London: Penguin, 1992). 8 Karen Dawisha, Putin’s Kleptocracy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014); Timothy Snyder, The Road to Unfreedom: Russia, Europe, America (New York: Tim Duggan Books, 2018); Anne Garrels, Putin Country: A Journey Into the Real Russia (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2016); Steven Lee Myers, The New Tsar: The Rise and Reign of Vladimir Putin (New York: Knopf Doubleday, 2016). 9 Credit Suisse, Global Wealth Report 2015, 53; Filip Novokmet, Thomas Piketty and Gabriel Zucman, ‘From Soviets to Oligarchs: Inequality and Property in Russia 1905–2016’, July 2017, World Wealth and Income Database; Shaun Walker, ‘Unequal Russia’, Guardian, 25 April 2017. 10 Ayelet Shani, ‘The Israelis Who Take Rebuilding the Third Temple Very Seriously’, Haaretz, 10 August 2017; ‘Israeli Minister: We Should Rebuild Jerusalem Temple’, Israel Today, 7 July 2013; Yuri Yanover, ‘Dep.

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Thornton, A Cultural History of the Atlantic World, 1250–1820 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 110. 13 Susannah Cullinane, Hamdi Alkhshali and Mohammed Tawfeeq, ‘Tracking a Trail of Historical Obliteration: ISIS Trumpets Destruction of Nimrud’, CNN, 14 April 2015. 14 Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton, Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2001), 36–8. 15 ‘ISIS Leader Calls for Muslims to Help Build Islamic State in Iraq’, CBCNEWS, 1 July 2014; Mark Townsend, ‘What Happened to the British Medics Who Went to Work for ISIS?’, Guardian, 12 July 2015. 7. Nationalism 1 Francis Fukuyama, Political Order and Political Decay: From the Industrial Revolution to the Globalization of Democracy (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2014). 2 Ashley Killough, ‘Lyndon Johnson’s “Daisy” Ad, Which Changed the World of Politics, Turns 50’, CNN, 8 September 2014. 3 ‘Cause-Specific Mortality: Estimates for 2000–2015’, World Health Organization, http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates/en/index1.html, accessed 19 October 2017. 4 David E.

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Contents Cover About the Book About the Author Also by Yuval Noah Harari Dedication Title Page Introduction Part I: The Technological Challenge 1. DISILLUSIONMENT The end of history has been postponed 2. WORK When you grow up, you might not have a job 3. LIBERTY Big Data is watching you 4. EQUALITY Those who own the data own the future Part II: The Political Challenge 5. COMMUNITY Humans have bodies 6. CIVILISATION There is just one civilisation in the world 7. NATIONALISM Global problems need global answers 8. RELIGION God now serves the nation 9. IMMIGRATION Some cultures might be better than others Part III: Despair and Hope 10.

Can It Happen Here?: Authoritarianism in America by Cass R. Sunstein

active measures, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, airline deregulation, anti-communist, anti-globalists, availability heuristic, behavioural economics, Black Lives Matter, Brexit referendum, business cycle, Cambridge Analytica, Cass Sunstein, cognitive load, David Brooks, disinformation, Donald Trump, driverless car, Edward Snowden, Estimating the Reproducibility of Psychological Science, failed state, fake news, Filter Bubble, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Garrett Hardin, ghettoisation, illegal immigration, immigration reform, Isaac Newton, job automation, Joseph Schumpeter, Long Term Capital Management, microaggression, Nate Silver, Network effects, New Journalism, night-watchman state, nudge theory, obamacare, Paris climate accords, post-truth, Potemkin village, random walk, Richard Thaler, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, seminal paper, Steve Bannon, TED Talk, the scientific method, Tragedy of the Commons, Tyler Cowen, War on Poverty, WikiLeaks, World Values Survey

David Goodhart, The Road to Somewhere: The Populist Revolt and the Future of Politics (London: Hurst, 2017). 36. Ivan Krastev, After Europe (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017). 37. This thesis is developed more fully in Ivan Krastev and Stephen Holmes, The End of Victory: The Untold Story of the Unraveling of the Post-1989 Order (forthcoming). 38. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” The National Interest (Summer 1989). 39. Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011). 40. Thomas Geoghegan, Only One Thing Can Save Us: Why America Needs a New Kind of Labor Movement (New York: New Press, 2014). 41.

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The key to explaining the appeal of authoritarian xenophobia in Hungary, Poland, and elsewhere in the region lies in the aftermath of 1989. The end of the Cold War was experienced there as the beginning of the Age of Imitation.37 This is why we can trace the roots of the current crisis of liberal democracy to the communist collapse. Francis Fukuyama’s central thesis was that, after the Soviet Union dissolved, Western-style liberal democracy had no serious competitors. This thesis, put into practice, turned out to have exceptionally perverse consequences.38 Because Western liberal democracy was unrivaled and uncontested, it allegedly offered the one and only political and economic model worthy of emulation.

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Rather, it is something that sits just beneath the surface of any human society—including in the advanced liberal democracies at the heart of the Western world—and can be activated by core elements of liberal democracy itself. Liberal democracy can become its own undoing because its core elements activate forces that undermine it and its best features constrain it from vigorously protecting itself. So it seems we are not at the “end of history” (Fukuyama 1992). The “last man” is not a perfected liberal democrat. Liberal democracy may not be the “final form of human government.” And intolerance is not a thing of the past; it is very much a thing of the present, and of the future. References Adorno, Theodor, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, and D.

The Idea of Israel: A History of Power and Knowledge by Ilan Pappe

affirmative action, Ayatollah Khomeini, Boycotts of Israel, British Empire, disinformation, double helix, facts on the ground, feminist movement, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, mass immigration, Mount Scopus, Nelson Mandela, New Journalism, one-state solution, postnationalism / post nation state, stem cell, Suez canal 1869, urban planning, Yom Kippur War

More than 600 people filled the university hall and gave up the game in which Bulgaria kicked Germany out of the World Cup.’ Zvi Gilat, Yedioth Ahronoth, 13 July 1994. 5 I have described this in Ilan Pappe, Out of the Frame: The Struggle for Academic Freedom, London: Pluto, 2010. 6 See Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, New York: Free Press, 1992. 7 Gorny, ‘Thoughts on Zionism as a Utopian Ideology’. 8 This is part of a campaign led by the Israeli Ministry of Information called ‘The Faces of Israel’ launched in 2000. 9 See Omar Barghouti, Boycott, Divestment, Sanction: The Global Struggle for Palestinian Rights, New York: Haymarket Books, 2011. 10 Edward Said, Orientalism, New York: Vintage, 1979, pp. 5–28.

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The images and narratives formulated by Zionist leaders and activists in the past, and Israeli Jewish intellectuals and academics in the present, present Israel as the inevitable, successful implementation of the European history of ideas. Ideas are the transformative agents that in any narrative of Western enlightenment lifted Western societies, and in turn the rest of the world, out of medieval darkness and into the Renaissance, and helped restore civilisation following the Second World War. According to Francis Fukuyama, this history of ideas would almost have reached its culmination had not political Islam, national movements in the former Soviet bloc, and Marxist leaders in South America ‘sabotaged’ the train of progress and modernisation.6 Israel was one such transformative idea. To challenge it as such is to challenge the entire narrative of the West as the driving global force of human progress and enlightenment.

The Tragedy of Great Power Politics by John J. Mearsheimer

active measures, Berlin Wall, Bretton Woods, British Empire, colonial rule, continuation of politics by other means, deindustrialization, discrete time, disinformation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, guns versus butter model, Herman Kahn, illegal immigration, long peace, Mikhail Gorbachev, Monroe Doctrine, mutually assured destruction, oil shock, Pareto efficiency, RAND corporation, Ronald Reagan, Simon Kuznets, South China Sea, Suez canal 1869, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, Yom Kippur War

Nisbet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), pp. 93–130. Also see John Mueller, Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War (New York: Basic Books, 1989); Michael Mandelbaum, “Is Major War Obsolete?” Survival 40, No. 4 (Winter 1998–99), pp. 20–38; and Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” The National Interest, No. 16 (Summer 1989), pp. 3–18, which was the basis of Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 2. Charles L. Glaser, “Realists as Optimists: Cooperation as Self-Help,” International Security 19, No. 3 (Winter 1994–95), pp. 50–90. 3. The balance of power is a concept that has a variety of meanings.

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Goncharov, Lewis, and Litai, Uncertain Partners, chap. 5; Mastny, The Cold War, pp. 85–97; Weathersby, “Soviet Aims in Korea” and Kathryn Weathersby, “To Attack or Not to Attack: Stalin, Kim Il Sung, and the Prelude to War,” CWIHP Bulletin 5 (Spring 1995), pp. 1–9. 85. See inter alia Galia Golan, The Soviet Union and National Liberation Movements in the Third World (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1988); Andrzej Korbonski and Francis Fukuyama, eds., The Soviet Union and the Third World: The Last Three Decades (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987); Bruce D. Porter, The USSR in Third World Conflicts: Soviet Arms and Diplomacy in Local Wars, 1945–1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); and Carol R. Saivetz, ed., The Soviet Union in the Third World (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1989). 86.

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The end of the Cold War, so the argument goes, marked a sea change in how great powers interact with one another. We have entered a world in which there is little chance that the major powers will engage each other in security competition, much less war, which has become an obsolescent enterprise. In the words of one famous author, the end of the Cold War has brought us to the “the end of history.”1 This perspective suggests that great powers no longer view each other as potential military rivals, but instead as members of a family of nations, members of what is sometimes called the “international community.” The prospects for cooperation are abundant in this promising new world, a world which is likely to bring increased prosperity and peace to all the great powers.

Whiteshift: Populism, Immigration and the Future of White Majorities by Eric Kaufmann

4chan, Abraham Maslow, affirmative action, Amazon Mechanical Turk, anti-communist, anti-globalists, augmented reality, battle of ideas, behavioural economics, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Boris Johnson, Brexit referendum, British Empire, centre right, Chelsea Manning, cognitive dissonance, complexity theory, corporate governance, correlation does not imply causation, critical race theory, crowdsourcing, Daniel Kahneman / Amos Tversky, data science, David Brooks, deindustrialization, demographic transition, Donald Trump, Elon Musk, en.wikipedia.org, facts on the ground, failed state, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, first-past-the-post, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, gentrification, Great Leap Forward, Haight Ashbury, Herbert Marcuse, illegal immigration, immigration reform, imperial preference, income inequality, it's over 9,000, Jeremy Corbyn, knowledge economy, knowledge worker, liberal capitalism, longitudinal study, Lyft, mass immigration, meta-analysis, microaggression, moral panic, Nate Silver, New Urbanism, Norman Mailer, open borders, open immigration, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, Overton Window, phenotype, postnationalism / post nation state, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Republic of Letters, Ronald Reagan, Scientific racism, Silicon Valley, Social Justice Warrior, statistical model, Steve Bannon, Steven Pinker, the built environment, the scientific method, The Wisdom of Crowds, transcontinental railway, twin studies, uber lyft, upwardly mobile, urban sprawl, W. E. B. Du Bois, Washington Consensus, white flight, working-age population, World Values Survey, young professional

The Bushes’ string of victories produced an optimistic mindset in which the Republican elite felt they could win Latino votes with a package emphasizing conservative social values and the work ethic. Ideologically, the fall of the Berlin Wall gave rise to an optimistic ‘End of History’ spirit among American neoconservatives and interventionist liberals, symbolized by Francis Fukuyama’s iconic book of 1992.40 With communism defeated, liberalism, capitalism and democracy, under American tutelage, could finally become universal. A global framework based on the Pax Americana and the shared values of the ‘Washington Consensus’ would revolutionize humanity.

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Both are seminal influences on today’s internet-based white nationalist movement which forms the core of today’s alternative right, or ‘alt right’.55 Neoconservatives preferred to endorse American exceptionalism, the idea that the US was a new type of post-ethnic nation. Most came to approve of Official English, opposed affirmative action and bilingual education and endorsed the need for immigrants to embrace a positive view of American history. They focused squarely on the creedal elements in the national repertoire. Francis Fukuyama, whom I interviewed soon after Brimelow’s book came out, saw value in the country’s ethno-traditions, thus deviating from the missionary nationalism of the neoconservatives. He argued that English was key for assimilation and traced the country’s founding to its Anglo-Protestant forebears. Where Fukuyama was critical of paleoconservatism was over Brimelow’s emphasis on a ‘white’ ethnic core rather than an Anglo-Protestant cultural inheritance which could be readily adopted by citizens of any background.

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When genetic tests revealed this to be true, the findings reinforced their myth of descent.29 In contrast, a study of North African Jews which showed them to be more similar to Arabs than European Jews caused ructions because it challenged existing beliefs.30 The active manipulation of genes would be much more consequential, raising a wide range of questions which Francis Fukuyama tackles in Our Posthuman Future (2002). The least intrusive form is to use gene therapy to modify our genetic makeup, altering physical traits. A more problematic step is to select which embryo we would like from a range of naturally occurring possibilities so that no one could guess that we engineered our baby’s characteristics.

Conscience of a Conservative: A Rejection of Destructive Politics and a Return to Principle by Jeff Flake

4chan, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, battle of ideas, Berlin Wall, cognitive dissonance, crony capitalism, David Brooks, disinformation, Donald Trump, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global supply chain, immigration reform, impulse control, invisible hand, Mark Zuckerberg, obamacare, Potemkin village, race to the bottom, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, Silicon Valley, Steve Bannon, uranium enrichment, zero-sum game

At the time, as the wall fell and the Soviet bloc that had been encased in Stalinism thawed, it was a vogue among some historians, scholars, and others to declare “the end of history”—that the big questions had been settled, that liberal democracy was triumphal and inexorable, and that the decline of the blackhearted impulse to enslave whole countries was also inexorable. Freedom had won, it was said, and for ever. The historian Francis Fukuyama, who had coined “the end of history” in an essay the year before, was much in demand, and it is likely that Havel would have been inspired by the fervor, which would explain this passage from his speech: “I often hear the question: How can the United States of America help us today?

The Case for Space: How the Revolution in Spaceflight Opens Up a Future of Limitless Possibility by Robert Zubrin

Ada Lovelace, Albert Einstein, anthropic principle, Apollo 11, battle of ideas, Boeing 747, Charles Babbage, Charles Lindbergh, Colonization of Mars, complexity theory, cosmic microwave background, cosmological principle, Dennis Tito, discovery of DNA, double helix, Elon Musk, en.wikipedia.org, flex fuel, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, gravity well, if you build it, they will come, Internet Archive, invisible hand, ITER tokamak, James Webb Space Telescope, Jeff Bezos, Johannes Kepler, John von Neumann, Kim Stanley Robinson, Kuiper Belt, low earth orbit, Mars Rover, Mars Society, Menlo Park, more computing power than Apollo, Naomi Klein, nuclear winter, ocean acidification, off grid, out of africa, Peter H. Diamandis: Planetary Resources, Peter Thiel, place-making, Pluto: dwarf planet, private spaceflight, Recombinant DNA, rising living standards, Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence, self-driving car, Silicon Valley, SoftBank, SpaceX Starlink, Strategic Defense Initiative, Stuart Kauffman, telerobotics, Thomas Malthus, three-masted sailing ship, time dilation, transcontinental railway, uranium enrichment, Virgin Galactic, Wayback Machine

Thus, in his seminal work on world history, The Evolution of Civilizations, historian Carroll Quigley identified seven major stages in the development of societies: (1) mixture, (2) gestation, (3) expansion, (4) conflict, (5) universal empire, (6) decay, and (7) collapse.4 With its victory in the Cold War circa 1990, Western (essentially modern global) civilization reached stage five. Should we choose to continue in the footsteps of such historical analogs, stage six would soon follow—and in fact, some would argue that it has already begun. In 1992, philosophy professor Francis Fukuyama wrote a widely read book entitled The End of History, in which he posited that with the unification of the world resulting from the West's victory in the Cold War, human history had essentially “ended.”5 In 1996, Scientific American writer James Horgan published a much more interesting best seller entitled The End of Science, in which he held that all the really big discoveries to be made in science had already been made, and thus the enterprise of scientific discovery must soon grind to a halt.6 (The day after I finished reading Horgan's book in February 1998, a group of astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope announced they had found a fifth fundamental force in nature.)

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Christopher Stringer and Robin McKie, African Exodus: The Origins of Modern Humanity (New York: Henry Holt, 1997). 2. James Shreve, The Neanderthal Enigma: Solving the Mystery of Modern Human Origins (New York: Avon Books, 1995). 3. William McNeill, The Rise of the West (New York: Mentor Books, 1965). 4. Carroll Quigley, The Evolution of Civilizations (Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 1961). 5. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History (New York: Free Press, 1992). 6. James Horgan, The End of Science (New York: Broadway Books, 1997). 7. Thomas D. Snyder, 120 Years of American Education: A Statistical Portrait (Washington, DC: US Department of Education, 1993), pp. 85–87, https://nces.ed.gov/pubs93/93442.pdf (accessed November 24, 2018).

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I believe this marks the end, not of human history but merely of the first phase of human history: our development into a mature Type I civilization. It is not the end of history, because if we choose to embrace it, we have in space a new frontier offering endless challenge—an infinite frontier, filled with worlds waiting to be discovered and history waiting to be made by myriad new branches of human civilization waiting to be born. Are we living at the end of history or at the beginning of history? Are we old, or are we young? The choice is ours. FOCUS SECTION: SPACE PROGRAM SPIN-OFFS One of the main selling points that NASA has frequently advanced to support its funding are the technological advances developed to meet space program needs that have greatly benefited society at large.

The Establishment: And How They Get Away With It by Owen Jones

anti-communist, Asian financial crisis, autism spectrum disorder, bank run, battle of ideas, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, bonus culture, Boris Johnson, Bretton Woods, British Empire, call centre, capital controls, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, centre right, citizen journalism, collapse of Lehman Brothers, collective bargaining, disinformation, don't be evil, Edward Snowden, Etonian, eurozone crisis, falling living standards, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, G4S, glass ceiling, hiring and firing, housing crisis, inflation targeting, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), investor state dispute settlement, James Dyson, Jon Ronson, laissez-faire capitalism, land bank, light touch regulation, low interest rates, market fundamentalism, mass immigration, Monroe Doctrine, Mont Pelerin Society, moral hazard, Neil Kinnock, night-watchman state, Nixon triggered the end of the Bretton Woods system, Northern Rock, Occupy movement, offshore financial centre, old-boy network, open borders, Overton Window, plutocrats, popular capitalism, post-war consensus, profit motive, quantitative easing, race to the bottom, rent control, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, shareholder value, short selling, sovereign wealth fund, stakhanovite, statistical model, subprime mortgage crisis, Suez crisis 1956, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, transfer pricing, Tyler Cowen, union organizing, unpaid internship, Washington Consensus, We are all Keynesians now, wealth creators, Winter of Discontent

Politicians largely conform to a similar script; once-mighty trade unions are now treated as if they have no legitimate place in political or even public life; and economists and academics who reject Establishment ideology have been largely driven out of the intellectual mainstream. The end of the Cold War was spun by politicians, intellectuals and the media to signal the death of any alternative to the status quo: ‘the end of history’, as US political scientist Francis Fukuyama put it. All this has left the Establishment pushing at an open door. Whereas the position of the powerful was once undermined by the advent of democracy, an opposite process is now underway. The Establishment is amassing wealth and aggressively annexing power in a way that has no precedent in modern times.

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As well as the dramatic political shifts in Britain, the proponents of unrestrained free-market economics were helped by other developments too. When the Soviet bloc collapsed in the late 1980s onwards, it was spun as a dramatic victory for free-market capitalism. It was the ‘end of history’, declared US political scientist Francis Fukuyama. ‘It’s time to say we’ve won, goodbye’ was the assessment of US neo-conservative Midge Decter. Even mild Keynesianism, however non-existent its links with Soviet-style Communism, was somehow seen as beyond the pale. Even mild forms of state involvement in the economy were consigned to a discredited past.

The Left Case Against the EU by Costas Lapavitsas

anti-work, antiwork, banking crisis, Bretton Woods, capital controls, central bank independence, collective bargaining, declining real wages, eurozone crisis, financial engineering, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global reserve currency, hiring and firing, low interest rates, machine translation, neoliberal agenda, offshore financial centre, post-work, price stability, quantitative easing, reserve currency, Ronald Reagan, Washington Consensus, Wolfgang Streeck

It was very much a product of its time marked by the discrediting of state-controlled socialism, the retreat of organized labour in the previous decade in the face of Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan, and the ascendancy of neoliberal economics in both theory and policy. That was the moment of Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History and the Last Man, a book that gained tremendous visibility by claiming that liberal democracy and free-market capitalism went hand-in-hand, and together had actually won the grand historical contest among political and social systems.2 The Maastricht Treaty encapsulated the spirit of the time for Europe, and was a moment of historic importance in the evolution of the European project.3 The EU engaged in further sustained expansion in the 1990s and the 2000s, above all by incorporating a host of new countries in Eastern Europe and developing its international presence.

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‘The Systemic Crisis of the Euro: True Causes and Effective Therapies’, Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung Studien, available at: http://www.rosalux.de/fileadmin/rls_uploads/pdfs/Studien/Studien_The_systemic_crisis_web.pdf Flassbeck, H. and C. Lapavitsas 2015. Against the Troika: Crisis and Austerity in the Eurozone, London and New York: Verso. Fukuyama, F. 1992. The End of History and the Last Man, New York: Free Press. Fukuyama, F. 2007. ‘The History at the End of History’, The Guardian, 3 April, available at: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/apr/03/thehistoryattheendofhist Giurlando, P. 2016. Eurozone Politics: Perception and Reality in Italy, the UK, and Germany, London and New York: Routledge. Gourinchas P.O., T.

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This is fully appreciated in the academic literature, which recognizes the end of the ‘permissive consensus’ after Maastricht, that is, the end of a period in which European integration proceeded mostly from above as a project operated by the elites of European countries. After Maastricht, ‘Europe’ became an issue of national and popular politics and the functioning of the EU acquired new characteristics. See Hooghe and Marks (2009) and Bickerton, Hodson, and Puetter (2015). 4. More than a decade after publishing The End of History and the Last Man, Fukuyama (2007) helpfully explained in the British Guardian that his model for the triumph of ‘post-historical’ liberal democracy was not the USA but the EU precisely because it was transnational (Fukuyama 2007). 5. Academics have long discussed the ‘crisis of representation’ in Europe: see, for instance, the special issues of West European Politics (Hayward 1995) and the European Journal of Political Research (summed up in Norris 1997).

People, Power, and Profits: Progressive Capitalism for an Age of Discontent by Joseph E. Stiglitz

affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Alan Greenspan, AlphaGo, antiwork, barriers to entry, basic income, battle of ideas, behavioural economics, Berlin Wall, Bernie Madoff, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, business cycle, Cambridge Analytica, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carbon tax, carried interest, central bank independence, clean water, collective bargaining, company town, corporate governance, corporate social responsibility, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, crony capitalism, DeepMind, deglobalization, deindustrialization, disinformation, disintermediation, diversified portfolio, Donald Trump, driverless car, Edward Snowden, Elon Musk, Erik Brynjolfsson, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial deregulation, financial innovation, financial intermediation, Firefox, Fractional reserve banking, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, George Akerlof, gig economy, Glass-Steagall Act, global macro, global supply chain, greed is good, green new deal, income inequality, information asymmetry, invisible hand, Isaac Newton, Jean Tirole, Jeff Bezos, job automation, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John von Neumann, Joseph Schumpeter, labor-force participation, late fees, low interest rates, low skilled workers, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, mass incarceration, meta-analysis, minimum wage unemployment, moral hazard, new economy, New Urbanism, obamacare, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, patent troll, Paul Samuelson, pension reform, Peter Thiel, postindustrial economy, price discrimination, principal–agent problem, profit maximization, purchasing power parity, race to the bottom, Ralph Nader, rent-seeking, Richard Thaler, Robert Bork, Robert Gordon, Robert Mercer, Robert Shiller, Robert Solow, Ronald Reagan, Savings and loan crisis, search costs, secular stagnation, self-driving car, shareholder value, Shoshana Zuboff, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, South China Sea, sovereign wealth fund, speech recognition, Steve Bannon, Steve Jobs, surveillance capitalism, TED Talk, The Chicago School, The Future of Employment, The Great Moderation, the market place, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, too big to fail, trade liberalization, transaction costs, trickle-down economics, two-sided market, universal basic income, Unsafe at Any Speed, Upton Sinclair, uranium enrichment, War on Poverty, working-age population, Yochai Benkler

—MARK 3:25; ABRAHAM LINCOLN CHAPTER 1 Introduction That things are not going well in the US and in many other advanced countries is a mild understatement. There is widespread discontent in the land. It wasn’t supposed to be this way, according to the dominant thinking in American economics and political science in the last quarter century. After the fall of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989, Francis Fukuyama declared The End of History, as democracy and capitalism at last had triumphed. A new era of global prosperity, with faster-than-ever growth, was thought to be at hand, and America was supposed to be in the lead.1 By 2018, those soaring ideas seem finally to have crashed to Earth. The 2008 financial crisis showed that capitalism wasn’t all that it was supposed to be—it seemed neither efficient nor stable.

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US labor force participation rate (the fraction of working-age citizens who either have or are looking for a job) is also much lower than that of many other countries with much higher tax rates. 46.Nancy MacLean, a distinguished historian at Duke University, has put these arguments into historical context in her book Democracy in Chains: The Deep History of the Radical Right’s Stealth Plan for America (New York: Penguin, 2017). 47.Including our rules-based competitive market economy and our democracy with its system of checks and balances to which we referred earlier, and upon which we will elaborate below. 48.Inaugural address, Jan. 20, 1961. 49.As we noted earlier, Francis Fukuyama referred to this as the “end of history.” All the world would now converge to this economic and political system. 50.Alain Cohn, Ernst Fehr, and Michel André Maréchal, “Business Culture and Dishonesty in the Banking Industry,” Nature 516, no. 7592 (2014): 86–89. 51.Yoram Bauman and Elaina Rose, “Selection or Indoctrination: Why Do Economics Students Donate Less than the Rest?

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Norton), I analyzed the unfolding Great Recession, giving recommendations for how serious, extended economic underperformance could be avoided, and how the financial sector could be reformed to prevent such bubbles and their bursting in the future. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.The full title of Fukuyama’s 1992 book is The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press). After the election of Trump, his views changed: “Twenty five years ago, I didn’t have a sense or a theory about how democracies can go backward. And I think they clearly can.” Ishaan Tharoor, “The Man Who Declared the ‘End of History’ Fears for Democracy’s Future,” Washington Post, Feb. 9, 2017. 2.This is the thesis of a recent book by Adam Tooze of Columbia University, Crashed: How a Decade of Financial Crises Changed the World (New York: Viking, 2018). 3.New York: Harper, 2016. 4.New York: The New Press, 2016. 5.See also Jennifer Sherman, Those Who Work, Those Who Don’t: Poverty, Morality, and Family in Rural America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009); Joan C.

Destined for War: America, China, and Thucydides's Trap by Graham Allison

9 dash line, anti-communist, Berlin Wall, borderless world, Bretton Woods, British Empire, capital controls, Carmen Reinhart, conceptual framework, cuban missile crisis, currency manipulation / currency intervention, Deng Xiaoping, disruptive innovation, Donald Trump, Dr. Strangelove, escalation ladder, facts on the ground, false flag, Flash crash, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, game design, George Santayana, Great Leap Forward, guns versus butter model, Haber-Bosch Process, Herman Kahn, high-speed rail, industrial robot, Internet of things, Kenneth Rogoff, liberal world order, long peace, Mark Zuckerberg, megacity, megaproject, middle-income trap, Mikhail Gorbachev, Monroe Doctrine, mutually assured destruction, Nelson Mandela, one-China policy, Paul Samuelson, Peace of Westphalia, public intellectual, purchasing power parity, RAND corporation, Ronald Reagan, Scramble for Africa, selection bias, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley startup, South China Sea, special economic zone, spice trade, Suez canal 1869, synthetic biology, TED Talk, the rule of 72, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, too big to fail, trade route, UNCLOS, Washington Consensus, zero-sum game

Acknowledging that the “lines between [civilizations] are seldom sharp,” Huntington argued that they are nonetheless “real.”12 Huntington by no means ruled out future violent conflicts between groups within a common civilization. His point, rather, was that in a post–Cold War world, civilizational fault lines would not dissolve in a global convergence toward liberal world order—as one of Huntington’s former students, the political scholar Francis Fukuyama, had predicted in his 1989 article “The End of History?”13—but become more pronounced. “Differences do not necessarily mean conflict, and conflict does not necessarily mean violence,” Huntington allowed. “Over the centuries, however, differences among civilizations have generated the most prolonged and the most violent conflicts.”14 Huntington was keen to disabuse readers of the Western myth of universal values, which he said was not just naive but inimical to other civilizations, particularly the Confucian one with China at its center.

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Qianlong’s First Edict to King George III (September 1793), in The Search for Modern China: A Documentary Collection, ed. Pei-kai Cheng, Michael Lestz, and Jonathan Spence (New York: Norton, 1999), 104–6. [back] 11. Samuel Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations?,” Foreign Affairs 72, no. 3 (Summer 1993), 22. [back] 12. Ibid., 24. [back] 13. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?,” The National Interest, no. 16 (Summer 1989), 3–18. [back] 14. Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations?,” 25. [back] 15. Ibid., 41. [back] 16. Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2003), 225. [back] 17.

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As Geoff Dyer has explained, “The Communist Party has faced a slow-burning threat to its legitimacy ever since it dumped Marx for the market.” Thus the Party has evoked past humiliations at the hands of Japan and the West “to create a sense of unity that had been fracturing, and to define a Chinese identity fundamentally at odds with American modernity.”47 During the 1990s when many Western thought leaders were celebrating the “end of history” with the apparent triumph of market-based democracies, a number of observers believed that China, too, was on a path to democratic government. Today, few in China would say that political freedoms are more important than reclaiming China’s international standing and national pride. As Lee put it pointedly, “If you believe that there is going to be a revolution of some sort in China for democracy, you are wrong.

Keynes Hayek: The Clash That Defined Modern Economics by Nicholas Wapshott

airport security, Alan Greenspan, banking crisis, Bear Stearns, Bretton Woods, British Empire, business cycle, collective bargaining, complexity theory, creative destruction, cuban missile crisis, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Gordon Gekko, greed is good, Gunnar Myrdal, if you build it, they will come, Isaac Newton, Joseph Schumpeter, Kickstarter, liquidationism / Banker’s doctrine / the Treasury view, means of production, military-industrial complex, Mont Pelerin Society, mortgage debt, New Journalism, Nixon triggered the end of the Bretton Woods system, Northern Rock, Paul Samuelson, Philip Mirowski, Phillips curve, price mechanism, public intellectual, pushing on a string, road to serfdom, Robert Bork, Robert Solow, Ronald Reagan, Simon Kuznets, The Chicago School, The Great Moderation, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, trickle-down economics, Tyler Cowen, War on Poverty, We are all Keynesians now, Yom Kippur War

Hassett, “The Second Coming of Keynes,” National Review, February 9, 2009. 11 UCLA Oral History Program, p. 195. 12 Robert E. Lucas Jr., “Macroeconomic Priorities,” presidential address to the American Economic Association, January 10, 2003, http://home.uchicago.edu/%7Esogrodow/homepage/paddress03.pdf. 13 Yoshihiro Francis Fukuyama (1952– ), American political economist. 14 Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (Simon & Schuster, New York, 1992). 15 Ben Bernanke (1953– ), chairman of the Federal Reserve (2006– ), chairman of George W. Bush’s Council of Economic Advisers (2005–6). 16 Ben Bernanke, remarks at “A Conference to Honor Milton Friedman,” University of Chicago, Chicago, November 8, 2002. 17 Michael Kinsley (1951– ), American political journalist. 18 Michael Kinsley, “Greenspan Shrugged,” The New York Times, October 14, 2007. 19 Greenspan, Age of Turbulence, p. 68. 20 George H.

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“Its central prob-lem of depression-prevention has been solved, for all practical pur-poses.”12 When the Cold War ended, the American political economist Francis Fukuyama13 declared that the evolutionary stages of societal development, from feudalism through agricultural and industrial revolutions to a modern capitalist democracy, had come to an end; the world had reached “the end of history.”14 It was with a similar confidence that economists announced “the end of economic history”: the world economy was cured of the prospect of a return to depression. Friedman, not Keynes, was credited with solving the mystery of why the Great Depression of the 1930s occurred and how it could be prevented from happening again.

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., Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money [University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1956]). Friedman, Milton, and Rose D. Friedman. Two Lucky People: Memoirs (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1998). Friedman, Milton, and Anna D. Schwartz. A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1963). Fukuyama, Francis. The End of History and the Last Man (Free Press, New York, 1992). Galbraith, James K. Ambassador’s Journal (Houghton Mifflin, New York, 1969). —. A Life in Our Times (Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1981). —. The Essential Galbraith, ed. Andrea D. Williams (Mariner Books, Orlando, Fla., 2001). —. The Predator State: How Conservatives Abandoned the Free Market and Why Liberals Should Too (Free Press, New York, 2008).

Open: The Story of Human Progress by Johan Norberg

Abraham Maslow, additive manufacturing, affirmative action, Albert Einstein, anti-globalists, basic income, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Bletchley Park, Brexit referendum, British Empire, business cycle, business process, California gold rush, carbon tax, citizen journalism, classic study, Clayton Christensen, clean water, cognitive dissonance, collective bargaining, Corn Laws, coronavirus, COVID-19, creative destruction, crony capitalism, decarbonisation, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, digital map, Donald Trump, Edward Jenner, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, falling living standards, Filter Bubble, financial innovation, flying shuttle, Flynn Effect, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, Galaxy Zoo, George Gilder, Gini coefficient, global pandemic, global supply chain, global village, green new deal, humanitarian revolution, illegal immigration, income per capita, Indoor air pollution, indoor plumbing, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invisible hand, Isaac Newton, Islamic Golden Age, James Watt: steam engine, Jane Jacobs, Jeff Bezos, job automation, John von Neumann, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kickstarter, knowledge economy, labour mobility, Lao Tzu, liberal capitalism, manufacturing employment, mass immigration, negative emissions, Network effects, open borders, open economy, Pax Mongolica, place-making, profit motive, RAND corporation, regulatory arbitrage, rent control, Republic of Letters, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, Schrödinger's Cat, sharing economy, side project, Silicon Valley, Solyndra, spice trade, stem cell, Steve Bannon, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, Steven Pinker, tacit knowledge, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, too big to fail, trade liberalization, trade route, transatlantic slave trade, Tyler Cowen, Uber for X, ultimatum game, universal basic income, World Values Survey, Xiaogang Anhui farmers, zero-sum game

The shock of this transition is one of the factors that have made possible the rise of those reactionary movements which have tried, and still try, to overthrow civilization and to return to tribalism.’ Karl Popper, 1945 Around the time of the fall of communism, two essays that would later be extended to book format captured the interest of the chattering classes. The first one was Francis Fukuyama’s ‘The End of History?’ from 1989, arguing that liberal capitalist democracies were the final form of government and that history had in effect ended. The other essay, in many ways a response, was ‘The Clash of Civilizations?’ by Fukuyama’s old teacher Samuel Huntington. Huntington thought a new phase of history was starting after the Cold War, one that would be defined by traditional civilizations, which would set the pattern for collaborations and conflicts.

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1 ‘Freedom in the world: Electoral democracies 1989–2016’, Freedom House, https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/Electoral%20Democracy%20Numbers%2C%20FIW%201989-2016.pdf (accessed 9 March 2020). 2 G. Ward, The Politics of Discipleship. Grand Rapids, Baker Academic, 2009, p. 49. 3 F. Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man. London, Penguin Books, 2012, pp. 288 and 312. 4 Fukuyama, 2012, p. 328. See also P. Sagar, ‘The last hollow laugh’, Aeon Essays, 21 March 2017, https://aeon.co/essays/was-francis-fukuyama-the-first-man-to-see-trump-coming (accessed 9 March 2020). 5 Pinker, 2011. 6 S. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York, Simon & Schuster, 2007, ch. 12. 7 I.

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But he feared even more an assault from a reactionary Right, yearning for heroism and hierarchies that are lost in an egalitarian, consumerist world populated by the last men ‘without chests’. Therefore, there is a constant temptation to ‘return to being first men engaged in bloody and pointless prestige battles, only this time with modern weapons’. When he discussed whether the status-seeking and power-hungry would in the long run be satisfied with the comfortable life at the end of history, he just happened to mention ‘a developer like Donald Trump’.4 I don’t agree with all of Fukuyama’s analysis, and I do think he overdosed on Hegel and Nietzsche. But he was perceptive in his historical positioning of liberal capitalism and of the cultural and psychological factors that make us uncomfortable with it, and which therefore threaten to undermine it.

Jihad vs. McWorld: Terrorism's Challenge to Democracy by Benjamin Barber

airport security, Alvin Toffler, anti-communist, Apple's 1984 Super Bowl advert, Ayatollah Khomeini, Berlin Wall, borderless world, Bretton Woods, British Empire, classic study, computer age, Corn Laws, Corrections Corporation of America, David Brooks, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, digital map, export processing zone, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, George Gilder, global village, invisible hand, It's morning again in America, Joan Didion, Kevin Kelly, laissez-faire capitalism, late capitalism, Live Aid, market fundamentalism, Marshall McLuhan, minimum wage unemployment, new economy, Norbert Wiener, North Sea oil, off-the-grid, pirate software, Plato's cave, postnationalism / post nation state, profit motive, race to the bottom, Right to Buy, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, undersea cable, vertical integration, young professional, zero-sum game

Finally, neither Jihad nor McWorld has any intrinsic interest in the fairness question and here, as in other domains, the poorest nations with neither energy reserves nor a productive economy do the worst. They are “good energy citizens” by default, because in the cruel competition of McWorld they are not citizens at all. APPENDIX B TWENTY-TWO COUNTRIES’ TOP TEN GROSSING FILMS, 1991 Notes Introduction 1. Francis Fukuyama, in The End of History and the Last Man, (New York: Free Press, 1992), although he is far less pleased by his prognosis in his book than he seemed in the original National Interest essay that occasioned all the controversy; and Walter B. Wriston, Twilight of Sovereignty (New York: Scribner’s, 1992). 2.

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For in the economics of McWorld, the traditional dominance of raw materials and goods yields to a novel and distinctive new realm of activity—what I call the infotainment telesector—that redefines the economic realities of McWorld and reorders the relations of nation-states in ways that neither Francis Fukuyama nor Paul Kennedy could anticipate. 2 The Resource Imperative: The Passing of Autarky and the Fall of the West TRADE IN NATURAL resources and the fruits of the land, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral, is among the oldest and most prosperous and profitable sectors of the economy, dating back to the beginning of economic time.

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In the short run the forces of Jihad, noisier and more obviously nihilistic than those of McWorld, are likely to dominate the near future, etching small stories of local tragedy and regional genocide on the face of our times and creating a climate of instability marked by multimicrowars inimical to global integration. But in the long run, the forces of McWorld are the forces underlying the slow certain thrust of Western civilization and as such may be unstoppable. Jihad’s microwars will hold the headlines well into the next century, making predictions of the end of history look terminally dumb. But McWorld’s homogenization is likely to establish a macropeace that favors the triumph of commerce and its markets and to give to those who control information, communication, and entertainment ultimate (if inadvertent) control over human destiny. Unless we can offer an alternative to the struggle between Jihad and McWorld, the epoch on whose threshold we stand—postcommunist, postindustrial, postnational, yet sectarian, fearful, and bigoted—is likely also to be terminally postdemocratic.

The Coming Anarchy: Shattering the Dreams of the Post Cold War by Robert D. Kaplan

Berlin Wall, bread and circuses, clean water, Deng Xiaoping, edge city, European colonialism, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global village, Honoré de Balzac, mass immigration, military-industrial complex, Peace of Westphalia, Ronald Reagan, Thomas Malthus, trade route, unemployed young men, Yom Kippur War

The breaking apart and remakina of crack • 8 H ^ T ^ f t G m i R f n f t U S e r e and OF T H E P O S T C O L D W A R of the Arab-Israel milita^ Qngp^tj^n^areQnerely prologues^tothe realU Ina changes that lie ahead. . . . A u t h o r of B A L K A N GHOSTS U.S.A. $21.95 Canada $33.00 When "The Coming Anarchy" was published in The Atlantic Monthly in 1994, it was hailed as among the most important and influential articulations of the future of our planet, along with Francis Fukuyama's "The End of History" and Samuel P. Huntington's "The Clash of Civilizations." Since then, Robert Kaplan's anti-utopian vision of the fault lines of the twentyfirst century has taken on the status of a paradigm. "The Coming Anarchy" has been hailed as the defining thesis for understanding the post-Cold War world.

To Save Everything, Click Here: The Folly of Technological Solutionism by Evgeny Morozov

"World Economic Forum" Davos, 3D printing, algorithmic bias, algorithmic trading, Amazon Mechanical Turk, An Inconvenient Truth, Andrew Keen, augmented reality, Automated Insights, behavioural economics, Berlin Wall, big data - Walmart - Pop Tarts, Buckminster Fuller, call centre, carbon footprint, Cass Sunstein, choice architecture, citizen journalism, classic study, cloud computing, cognitive bias, creative destruction, crowdsourcing, data acquisition, Dava Sobel, digital divide, disintermediation, Donald Shoup, driverless car, East Village, en.wikipedia.org, Evgeny Morozov, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Filter Bubble, Firefox, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, frictionless, future of journalism, game design, gamification, Gary Taubes, Google Glasses, Ian Bogost, illegal immigration, income inequality, invention of the printing press, Jane Jacobs, Jean Tirole, Jeff Bezos, jimmy wales, Julian Assange, Kevin Kelly, Kickstarter, license plate recognition, lifelogging, lolcat, lone genius, Louis Pasteur, machine readable, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, Marshall McLuhan, moral panic, Narrative Science, Nelson Mandela, Nicholas Carr, packet switching, PageRank, Parag Khanna, Paul Graham, peer-to-peer, Peter Singer: altruism, Peter Thiel, pets.com, placebo effect, pre–internet, public intellectual, Ray Kurzweil, recommendation engine, Richard Thaler, Ronald Coase, Rosa Parks, self-driving car, Sheryl Sandberg, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley ideology, Silicon Valley startup, Skype, Slavoj Žižek, smart meter, social graph, social web, stakhanovite, Steve Jobs, Steven Levy, Stuxnet, surveillance capitalism, systems thinking, technoutopianism, TED Talk, the built environment, The Chicago School, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, the medium is the message, The Nature of the Firm, the scientific method, The Wisdom of Crowds, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, Thomas L Friedman, transaction costs, Twitter Arab Spring, urban decay, urban planning, urban sprawl, Vannevar Bush, warehouse robotics, WikiLeaks, work culture , Yochai Benkler