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The frost line—also known as frost depth or freezing depth—is most commonly the depth to which the groundwater in soil is expected to freeze. The frost

penetration depth δκ is the thickness of the layer of the gas where heat can diffuse through during half a cycle of oscillations. Viscous penetration

for shallow depths or thin specimens, while neutrons having high penetration depth are suited for bulk samples. The technique requires a source of neutrons

called "bremsstrahlung tail", attributable to bremsstrahlung. The penetration depth depends also on beam shape, narrower beam tend to have less penetration

junction which has one or more dimensions longer than the Josephson penetration depth λJ{\displaystyle \lambda _{J}}. This definition is not strict. In

coupling (between the work coil and the object to be heated), and the penetration depth. Induction heating allows the targeted heating of an applicable item

cone to penetrate a determined depth during that period of time. The penetration depth at which the liquid limit is measured depends on the standard and

approximation (BCA) is a heuristic used to more efficiently simulate the penetration depth and defect production by energetic ions (with kinetic energies in

near infrared and longer, the penetration depth varies from a metre to a few micrometres. For band 1, the penetration depth will usually be between 1 and

of resolution and number of molecules detectable. As a drawback, penetration depth is usually very poor (100 μm) in the visible wavelengths, but it can

generated. Due to the low energy of the incident electrons, their penetration depth is only a few atomic layers, making inverse photoemission a particularly

reflection forms the evanescent wave which extends into the sample. The penetration depth into the sample is typically between 0.5 and 2 micrometres, with the

conductivity attenuate the introduced electromagnetic wave, and thus the penetration depth decreases. Because of frequency-dependent attenuation mechanisms,

was the first blackjack authority to publish the importance of deck penetration (depth of the deal) in card counting, in his 1980 book The Blackjack Formula

the metals being welded and their composition will also affect the penetration depth. This process is very similar to resistance welding, except that in

bullet is often characterized in terms of its expanded diameter, penetration depth, and energy. Bullet energies for .380 ACP loads vary from 190 to 294 ft⋅lbf

exclude blurred signals from outside of the focal plane, MUSE's low penetration depth limits the excitation volume to a thin layer, and removes the tissue

excitation microscopy in their Point spread function, resolution, penetration depth, resistance to out-of-focus light and strength of photobleaching.

High energy lasers provide a greater penetration depth than low energy lasers. Around an 8 mm greater penetration depth for lasers with a wavelength between

200 cm2 and a quarter of a square meter (50x50 cm = 2,500 cm2); the penetration depth of 0.5 m can be controlled to prevent over-penetration in softer sediments

alternative to these treatments with their increased efficiency, greater penetration depth, and reduced side effects. Sonodynamic therapy could be used to treat

Velocity Variation Correction to Measured BB Penetration Depth, can be used to make corrections to BB penetration depth when measured BB velocity is within ±10 m/s

lbs. and a penetration depth of 17.5 inches. Key: Expansion – expanded bullet diameter (ballistic gelatin). Penetration – penetration depth (ballistic

likely to undergo large-angle scattering and hence its final mean penetration depth is likely to be shorter. If the direction of the particle's momentum

surface due to the skin effect and becomes an evanescent wave. Its penetration depth corresponds to the skin depth δ{\displaystyle \delta }, which can

whisker and its neighborhood, which has size of the order of London penetration depth λ L {\displaystyle \lambda _{L}} (~100 nm), is quantized because of

inspection of small, complex devices. The technique makes use of the high penetration depth of acoustic waves to image the internal structure of the specimen

hence at a shorter distance. The resulting dispersion decreased the penetration depth for a given cone diameter and also shortened the optimum standoff

363–376. doi:10.1016/S0734-743X(02)00071-4. Retrieved 23 June 2011. Earth Impact Effects Program Space debris penetration depth by velocity and diameter

expanded diameter, penetration depth, and weight retention. Expanded diameter is an indication of the size of the wound cavity, penetration depth shows if vital

lead bullet. A 2007 episode of MythBusters demonstrated a greater penetration depth of lead bullets versus silver bullets; the experiment utilized a 250-grain

ultrasound (HFU) achieves relatively high resolution by sacrificing some penetration depth. HFU typically uses waves between 20 and 100 MHz and achieves resolution

subsurface layers, the most critical trade-off in the design was that of penetration depth vs resolution: lower frequencies penetrates more, but allowed a smaller

of random superfluid density on the temperature dependence of the penetration depth" — Thomas M. Lippman: Kathryn A. Moler; "Direct imaging of the coexistence

encapsulated in non-hydrogen-permeable containers due to its low penetration depth, which is insufficient to penetrate intact human skin. However, GTLS

(1993-12-01). "Effects of relative plate motion on the deep structure and penetration depth of slabs below the Izu–Bonin and Mariana island arcs". Earth and Planetary

useful penetration depth significantly by employing wide-field three-photon excitation. While these advancements drastically improved penetration depth over

currents, even with non-uniform field penetration.[citation needed] The penetration depth for a good conductor can be calculated from the following equation:

is typically in the red or near-infrared region to ensure higher penetration depth. When scattering particles moving during the time, the interference

"Lockin transition, irreversibility field, and Josephson vortex penetration depth in κ-(ET)2Cu[N(CN)2]Br". Physica C: Superconductivity. 321 (3–4).

Electron penetration depth at which its energy is reduced by 1/e

a tradeoff between penetration depth and resolution. Higher frequencies provide better resolution but have less penetration depth. You may be able to

laser process and the arc process results in an increase in both weld penetration depth and welding speed (as compared to each process alone). The metal vapor

A. (June 2018). "3D numerical investigation of the effect of wall penetration depth on excavations behavior in sand". Computers and Geotechnics. 98: 82–92

Particle penetration depth at which the likelihood of non-absorption is 1/e

breast tissue is shown in Figure 6 (c). In addition, the effective penetration depth is plotted in Figure 7. Near-infrared spectroscopy Optical window

modes: SAR mode and Sounder mode SAR mode: map swath width 30 km, penetration depth 6 m Sounder mode: vertical resolution 1 m, along-track resolution:

large magnetic fields exactly parallel to the conducting planes, penetration depth demonstrates and specific heat confirms[citation needed] the existence

Kokkas et al. (2004) examined the effect of the smear layer on the penetration depth of three different sealers (AH Plus, Apexit, and a Grossman type-Roth

perforation formula devised by Wili Odermatt and W. Lanz can calculate the penetration depth of an APFSDS round. In 1982, an analytical investigation drawing from

two-photon microscopy for decreasing out-of-focus excitation, increasing penetration depth, increasing spatial resolution, and extending the excitation wavelength

optical properties and, unlike glass or ceramic, very small light penetration depth which makes it favorable for certain optical applications. Glass is

ULM is primarily utilized in vascular imaging. Because of its deep penetration depth and high resolution, tiny vessels deep within the tissue become visible

agents in bioterrorism. To simulate dispersal, attachment or the penetration depth in human or animal lungs, simulants must have particle sizes, specific

ones possess medium penetration, and anionic ones have the largest penetration depth. Furthermore, the effect of charge selectivity changes when the status

called the "penetration depth" of the evanescent wave. Taking reciprocals of the first equation of (12), we find that the penetration depth is d=λ02πn12sin2⁡θi−n22 

d} is called the Ekman layer depth, and gives an indication of the penetration depth of wind-induced turbulent mixing in the ocean. Note that it varies

evanescently perpendicular to the metal surface. At low frequencies, the SPP penetration depth into the metal is commonly approximated using the skin depth formula

nature or artificially produced by modern material science. The London penetration depth is one of the most important parameters characterizing a superconductor

applications. The relationship between operating frequency and current penetration depth and therefore hardness depth is inversely proportional. i.e. the lower

dial, on which a harder material gives a lower measure. That is, the penetration depth and hardness are inversely proportional. The chief advantage of Rockwell

peak pressure waves of handgun bullets from the impact energy and penetration depth in ballistic gelatin. This model agrees with the more rigorous approach

Expansion – expanded bullet diameter (ballistic gelatin) Penetration – penetration depth (ballistic gelatin) PC – permanent cavity volume (ballistic gelatin

Retrieved 2021-10-29. Toiviainen, Aleksi; Joensuu, Jaakko (2014). Penetration Depth Comparison of Submerged Arc Welding by Using Constant-Current and

250 nm, while the depth resolution (if not limited by the optical penetration depth of the sample) can range from 1-6 µm with the smallest confocal pinhole

but other high energy cosmic particles, which all have different penetration depth in the crust. Therefore, a large volume of data is being accumulated

about 0.025 °C per metre according to the geothermal gradient. The "penetration depth" is defined as the depth at which the temperature variable is less

metal (in g/cm3). Other common expressions for the corrosion rate is penetration depth and change of mechanical properties. In 2002, the US Federal Highway

radiation, no contrast agents, high temporal resolution, and large penetration depth. The utility of DCS technology has been demonstrated in tumors, brains

radiation, no contrast agents, high temporal resolution, and large penetration depth. The utility of DCS technology has been demonstrated in tumors, brains

lasers target haemoglobin as the chromophore and typically have a penetration depth of 0.8 mm (twice as deep as holmium). Holmium Laser Ablation of the

Maximum penetration depth of the penis

Microwave radiometer detecting 3, 7.8, 19.35 and 37 GHz with a maximal penetration depth of 30, 20, 10, 1 m (98.4, 65.6, 32.8, 3.3 ft) and a thermal resolution

diode laser with a wavelength of 811 nm without a significant loss in penetration depth. Furthermore, this technique is used in cladding. Depending on the

Expansion: expanded bullet diameter (ballistic gelatin) Penetration: penetration depth (ballistic gelatin) PC: permanent cavity volume (ballistic gelatin

Frequency range 150 to 1200 MHz Vertical resolution 15 cm to 30 cm (6" to 12") Penetration depth ≤10 m (33 ft) Measurement interval Every 10 cm (3.9 in)

color. On the other hand, the method of color separation by silicon penetration depth gives more cross-contamination between color layers, meaning more

S2CID 249659408. Yanoff, Brian (2000). Temperature dependence of the penetration depth in the unconventional superconductor Sr2RuO4 (PDF). University of

important to select a frequency which offers the deepest practical penetration depth into the material without running the risk of current cancellation

scattering 60 300 300 1 Table 1. Comparison of contrast mechanisms, penetration depth (Δz), axial resolution (δz), lateral resolution (δx=δy) and imaging

into a block of clay, Willem 's Gravesande determined that their penetration depth was proportional to the square of their impact speed. Émilie du Châtelet

intensity of the field at its height, z{\displaystyle z}. Since the penetration depth of the evanescent field is on the order of hundreds of nanometers

changes, both of which can lower energy use. It also has a low heat penetration depth, meaning the wall surface keeps a constant temperature. Rastra Insulated

describing the propagation of carbonation in time is to consider penetration depth proportional to the square root of time, following the correlation

E.; Mao, Z. Q.; Maeno, Y. (2000). "Temperature Dependence of the Penetration Depth in Sr2RuO4: Evidence for Nodes in the Gap Function". Physical Review

deposits from weathering and erosion of bedrock) may be measured with a penetration depth into air-soil interface of about half of wavelength used (e.g. green

on an industrial scale. Microwave volumetric heating has a greater penetration depth, of up to 42 millimetres (1.7 in), which is an even penetration through

less painfully. It also includes a controlling system to alter the penetration depth. To produce a drop of capillary blood for blood sugar testing. Thyroid

selected depending upon the metal to be welded, weld shapes and desired penetration depth. Power supply: A direct-current power source (generator or rectifier)

_{1}+\gamma _{2}+\gamma _{3}+\cdots +\gamma _{n}} The concept of penetration depth is one of many ways to describe the absorption of electromagnetic

the medium 2 penetrates as an evanescent wave. The intensity and penetration depth of the evanescent wave can be calculated according to Equations 2

lunging out for new power. The sword stands for strike capability and penetration depth. The red arrow illustrates the third dimension, the depth of space

experimental test for BCS theory by showing how the magnetic field penetration depth in superconducting lead depended on temperature. This led Sarachik

Experiments by A. H. Harten on the dependence of the photovoltage on the penetration depth of light found were satisfactory explained by considering the influence

Plot of 1/e-penetration depth of the evanescent wave against angle of incidence in units of wavelength for different refraction indices.

with a known biological role. Niobium has the largest known magnetic penetration depth of all the elements. Zirconium is one of the main components of zircon

does not emit gamma rays, and its radiation has a relatively small penetration depth in matter and a relatively long half-life. Some signal lights use

[citation needed] The downside of optical imaging is the lack of penetration depth, especially when working at visible wavelengths. Depth of penetration

the Sistema Huautla in Oaxaca, Mexico, where his group set a new penetration depth record of 2,624 feet (800 m). After obtaining a Ph.D. in Engineering

Taco; Augustine, Robin (2018-02-21). "Split-Ring Resonator Sensor Penetration Depth Assessment Using In Vivo Microwave Reflectivity and Ultrasound Measurements

provides great ex-vivo analysis, but due to its pure optical source its penetration depth is limited making in-vivo analysis limited. Alternatively, photoacoustics

film samples rather than their bulk properties. Generally, ATR has a penetration depth of around 1 or 2 micrometers depending on sample conditions. The interferogram

the interior of the Abrikosov flux-line lattice, i.e., the London penetration depth λ of that theory is analogous to the confinement radius Rc of quantum

the superconducting length scales show similar anisotropy, in both penetration depth (λab ≈ 150 nm, λc ≈ 800 nm) and coherence length, (ξab ≈ 2 nm, ξc

S2CID 37686143. Hu, Zhong-Wei; Chu, Yi; Zhang, Kai-Jun (May 1996). "On Penetration Depth of the Shoemaker–Levy 9 Fragments into the Jovian Atmosphere". Earth

(2010). Effects of anisotropy of the turbid media on the photon penetration depth. Journal of Modern Optics, 57(20), 2048-2053. Caveness, William F

following benefits: lower absorption in tissue, greater physical penetration depth in tissue, stronger particle deflections, significantly better acoustic

conservation of the single flux quantum. Fluxon Josephson effect Josephson penetration depth Long Josephson junction Shape waves Sine-Gordon equation Hess, H.

conservation of the single flux quantum. Fluxon Josephson effect Josephson penetration depth Long Josephson junction Shape waves Sine-Gordon equation Hess, H.

and slows down the neutrons of gamma rays which in turn reduces the penetration depth of harmful gamma rays inside the concrete. The use of heavy-weight

the high kinetic energy of the exhaust particles leads to a high penetration depth within the target material. This allows for example to harden steel

requires a craniotomy and only provides a few hundred micrometres of penetration depth. Furthermore, it is focused on one area of the brain, while research

presence of oxygen versus inert gases, radiation source (changing the penetration depth), and whether the polymer has been dissolved in an aqueous solution

DOBOPS for every operation, only trained and tested troops to be used, penetration depth to be limited, attacks only to thwart enemy offensive action, never

"The planets capture model of V838 Monocerotis: conclusions for the penetration depth of the planet/s". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society

main consideration for the choice of a particular technique is the penetration depth needed to image the area and the amount of cell-cell interaction details

enough (in the case of traveling too slowly). An approximation for the penetration depth is obtained with an impact depth formula derived by Sir Isaac Newton

resources at Meridiani Planum since (a) the HEND has a shallow (1 m) penetration depth, (b) the majority of the plain's surface is covered in dehydrated

interactions per cm2. Compared to surface plasmon resonance (SPR), which penetration depth is limited by the evanescent field, SCORE is limited by the coherence

laser pulse penetrates into the surface of the material within the penetration depth. This dimension is dependent on the laser wavelength and the index

acquired in real-time, ICI can also be used to control the laser penetration depth by using the depth measurement in a feedback loop that modulates the

elemental superconductors at 9.2 K. Niobium has the greatest magnetic penetration depth of any element. In addition, it is one of the three elemental Type

absorb most of it, compared to a strong reflection of visible light. Penetration depth of infrared radiation in our skin is dependent of wavelength. IR-A

convection heating methods which thinly deposit heat at the food surface. Penetration depth of microwaves depends on food composition and the frequency, with

sample to be delivered in powders with a particle size around the penetration depth of microwaves in the particular material. The sintering process and

beam will generally have a broad depth distribution. The average penetration depth is called the range of the ions. Under typical circumstances ion ranges

fired from the P90 at a distance of 25 m (27 yd) exhibited an average penetration depth of 25 cm (9.85 in) in ballistic gelatin after passing through a Level

clothing, paper, cardboard, wood, masonry, plastic and ceramics. The penetration depth is typically less than that of microwave radiation. Like infrared

causing cancers by radiolytic DNA bond cleavage. Due to the shallow penetration depth of millimeter waves into tissue (typically less than 1 mm), acute

material's ability to respond both to electrical and magnetic stimuli. The penetration depth of a magnetic field is also high, leading to an increased area that

able to only 'see' (gather information from) the surface. If the penetration depth of the incident particle is too deep into the sample, the information

immersion lenses). The depth resolution (if not limited by the optical penetration depth of the sample) can range from 1–6 µm with the smallest confocal pinhole

monochromator side and on the spectrometer side. Thanks to the high penetration depth of hard X-rays, there is no need of UHV. Therefore, the exchange of

daughter products emit gamma-rays and neutrons which have a long penetration depth. If consumed, most of the americium is excreted within a few days

this order. This typically requires that the “penetration ratio” (penetration depth over indenter radius) should be at least about 10%. Finally, depending

extensive compared to that in the water, in fact, while in the latter the penetration depth of light is many meters, sediment particles strongly reduce the amount

fired from the P90 at a distance of 25 m (27 yd) exhibited an average penetration depth of 25 cm (9.85 in) in ballistic gelatin covered with a Level II vest

requirement is very similar at 12 to 18 inches (300 to 460 mm). A penetration depth of 12.5 to 14 inches (320 to 360 mm) may seem excessive, but a bullet

between the ablation pressure and the surface tension divided by the penetration depth x. Assuming that the drilling front is moving at a constant velocity

elemental superconductors at 9.2 K. Niobium has the greatest magnetic penetration depth of any element. In addition, it is one of the three elemental Type

significant drops in sensitivity, and thus image quality, beyond 2mm of penetration depth. Therefore, if used sequentially to image an eye from the cornea to

(1993). "Effects of relative plate motion on the deep structure and penetration depth of slabs below the Izu-Bonin and Mariana island arcs" (PDF). Earth

penetration of a 5 MHz-shear wave in water is 250 nm. This finite penetration depth renders the QCM surface-specific. Also, liquids and gases have a rather

available at the time, but stopped at 0.94 in (24 mm), the highest penetration depth estimated at 82 ft (25 m) range, it was unlikely to be deadly. In

by: I ( Z ) = I 0 e − z / d {\displaystyle I(Z)=I_{0}e^{-z/d}} With penetration depth d {\displaystyle d} given by: d = λ 0 4 π ( n 2 2 sin 2 ⁡ θ − n 1

prohibitive for small and simple items. Heating is limited by the penetration depth of the electromagnetic field. Care must be taken to avoid uneven heating

Thompson, J. D.; Movshovich, R. (2009). "Direct measurements of the penetration depth in a superconducting film using magnetic force microscopy". Applied

independently while using a single source-detector separation. Moreover, the penetration depth in TD depends solely on the photon arrival times and is independent

headlights in fog. Larger spot sizes slightly increase the effective penetration depth of the laser light, thus enabling more effective targeting of deeper

of non-linear absorption, i.e. high spatial resolution, enhanced penetration depth, improved background discrimination and reduced photodamage to living

the laser beam is controlled to direct most of its energy a fixed penetration depth into the material to be engraved. In this manner, only a particular

American painter since Copley, with equal substance and power, and added penetration, depth, and subtlety. John Canaday, art critic for The New York Times, wrote

a solid wall; there then exists a boundary layer of thickness or, penetration depth δ=(2ν/ω)1/2{\displaystyle \delta =(2\nu /\omega )^{1/2}}. Rayleigh

other tissue imaging requiring micrometer resolution and millimeter penetration depth. OCT has also been used for various art conservation projects, where

may include inspection of the seabed before jack-up, measurement of penetration depth of legs, monitoring and management of scour around the legs where

distribution below the shadowed regions of the Moon. It has lunar surface penetration depth of 5 m (16 ft) (L-band). The Imaging IR Spectrometer (IIRS) from the

include: low brain sensitivity, low spatial resolution, and shallow penetration depth. Despite a few limitations, fNIRS devices are relatively small, lightweight

quality. TWI has developed tools specifically designed to increase the penetration depth and thus increasing the plate thicknesses that can be successfully

large ratio of culture volume to surface area and optimized light penetration depth; 2) easy control over temperature and contaminants; 3) easy spatial

interaction cross-sections and shadow cone radii. For this reason penetration depth is low and the method has much higher first-layer sensitivity than

imaging/radio frequency (RF), providing good spatial resolution, great penetration depth and high soft-tissue contrast. GNR synthesized by unzipping single-

Saturn I second stage was instrumented to study the frequency and penetration depth of micrometeoroids. Two large panels were folded into the empty stage

ratio. Compared to optical sensors in the UV or visible range, the penetration depth in biological tissue is also increased. In addition to the advantage

I(d)=I0e−d/Λ(E).{\displaystyle I(d)=I_{0}\,e^{-d/\Lambda (E)}.} Here d is the penetration depth, and Λ(E){\displaystyle \Lambda (E)} denotes the inelastic mean free

to cells exposed to UV radiation after 60 seconds of exposure. The penetration depth of UV radiation into soils is in the sub-millimeter to millimeter

Full micro-SORS was proven to be more effective in terms of both penetration depth into the sample and relative enhancement of sublayer signal To reconstruct

using the plasma created to functionalize the surface. The limited penetration depth of such treatment provides vastly improved adhesion while preserving

These wavelengths are generally considered safer due to their limited penetration depth caused by increased protein absorption. This feature confines far-UVC

noise wavefield but especially to common assumptions made in seismic: Penetration depth depends on the array size but also on the noise quality, resolution

access, but not densification due to repulping and their limited penetration depth. The process of using these machines specifically for tailings and

wirelessly modulate neuronal activity. Unlike light, which has a limited penetration depth in biological tissues due to attenuation, weak alternating magnetic

is a problem due to the depth of reversal which is limited by the penetration depth of the laser beam Exchange spring media Microwave-assisted magnetic

Second Edition. ISBN 9780849399398. Yan, Xiaojun (1993). "On the Penetration Depth in Fourier Heat Conduction". Heat Conduction Third Edition. American

and chloride penetration. Their aim is to avoid underestimating the penetration depth of these harmful chemical agents and to calculate a sufficient thickness

evanescently perpendicular to the metal surface. At low frequencies, the SPP penetration depth into the metal is commonly approximated using the skin depth formula

light to enable imaging-guided photodynamic therapy, overcoming the penetration depth limitations. SHG microscopy and its expansions can be used to study

Acting in a similar manner to a cone penetrometer, the SPI wedge penetration depth into soft sediments may be generally useful as a proxy for sediment

measured is an average across a band of atmosphere, depending on the penetration depth of the microwaves. The brightness temperature (TB) measured by satellite

electrode pores, the internal resistance increases with the increasing penetration depth of the charge carriers into the pores. The internal DC resistance

frequencies of SHARAD are designed for higher resolution, but lower penetration depth, so if the overlying ice contains a significant amount of silicates

material in the mucus. Maximum adhesion strength is reached when penetration depth is approximately equal to polymer chain size. Properties of mutual

railway between Constanța and Cernavodă. The offensive achieved a penetration depth of some 80 kilometers, or an average of 10 kilometers per an operational

process should be planned so that a uniform distribution or sufficient penetration depth is achieved. PAC probes may also be added during the synthesis of

molecular pathways of the neurovascular unit. However, limited tissue penetration depth, photobleaching, and phototoxicity negatively impact the potential

improve resolution of transcranial mouse brain imaging by ~1.7x with a penetration depth of ~750 um and almost 16x improvement in the signal to background

microscopy. This forms an enhanced depth of focus, allowing for greater penetration depth within turbid media. Light from a broadband supercontinuum laser is

higher specificity than conventional ultrasound imaging and greater penetration depth than conventional ballistic optical imaging modalities. Photoacoustic

isotopic element. This allows a simple relationship between that of penetration depth profile and elastic scattering yield Elastic collision between two

photoactive compounds, are triggered by UV light, which has smaller penetration depth and causes more tissue damage compared with IR light. UCNPs can be

Strength of hardened concrete ISO 1920-5:2018 Part 5: Density and water penetration depth ISO 1920-6:2019 Part 6: Sampling, preparing and testing of concrete

discovered, especially for the eyes and skin, due to the laser's low penetration depth. Lasers have numerous applications in technology and research as well